Unconventional Fuels

Unconventional Fossil Fuels

Although renewable energy has been developed, some countries are still dependent on fossil fuels. As conventional fossil fuels become increasingly limited, some nations have turned to unconventional fossil fuels to continue to support their demand.

Tar sands

Opencast mines are used to extract tar sands before it is crushed and misted with water. High-pressure steam can be injected in to separate the bitumen from the sands.
Tar sands are only economically worthwhile when oil prices rise above US$40 a barrel. This is because tar sand production costs US$8-18 a barrel more than conventional oil production.
The process is energy intensive, requiring 1 barrel of conventional oil to produce 3 barrels of tar sand oil.
It is also water intensive, requiring 2-5 barrels of water for each barrel of oil.

Canadian tar sands

Tar sands could meet 16% of North America’s oil needs by 2030, offering energy security to Canada and the USA (70% of Canadian oil is exported to the USA).
The work related to this is vital for local and national economies.

Oil shale

Kerogen is found in sedimentary rock that has not had enough pressure, heat and time for conventional oil.
77% of the world reserves of kerogen are found in the USA.

Shale gas

Shale gas is gas trapped in fractures and pores of sandstones and shales.
This can also include methane that is found in coal seams.

Deep water oil

As reserves which are accessible decline (i.e. North Sea oil) companies search deeper ocean water for other oil reserves.
These come with greater environmental risks and economic costs.
- E.g. The Gulf of Mexico and Brazil's offshore reserves.

Biofuels

Biofuels use natural waste and plants to create primary energy in the form of fuel that can power vehicles or generate secondary energy.

What are biofuels?

Biofuels are fuels that are produced from organic matter and can be used in vehicles. This can include biomass (the burning of plant material and animal waste for energy).
Biofuel has three categories:
- Bio-ethanol is derived from sugar cane and beet and maize.
- Bio-diesel is derived from animal fats and vegetable oils.
- Bio-methane can be derived from waste (organic, domestic or animal) and sewage.

Impact of biofuels on food supply

Plants that would otherwise have been grown for food are now being grown for fuel (i.e. rapeseed oil in the EU, Maize in the USA, palms in Malaysia).
Food shortages can happen as a result of farmers changing to a cash crop like sugar cane. This can lead to rising food prices.
Land that would have been used for food production is now used for fuel production.

Are they carbon neutral?

The aim of using biofuels is to reduce carbon emissions.
But there is mass deforestation to plant the fuel.
Biomass needs a kick-start to start burning, which requires fossil fuels.
This, with the carbon that is released from the burning of the biomass, can produce 150-400% more CO₂ than coal.
Different plant fuels will have higher carbon emissions (such as rapeseed) than crude oil.
Deforestation for crop production needs the carbon to sink and increases CO₂ emissions.

Biofuels in Brazil

Brazil is a big biofuel producer and the industry provides a huge number of jobs for Brazilians. But there are links with social unrest over land use rights.

The industry

Brazil is the biggest producer of ethanol from sugar cane, which is used in a mix with petrol in most cars and vehicles (happening since the 1930s).
930,000 barrels worth is produced each day and is worth US$50 billion a year, employing 1.34 million people and generating 16% of Brazil’s energy.
6 million flex vehicles (vehicles that can use a mixture of fuels) and 3 million others are powered by ethanol and bio-diesel (from soybean oil).

Problems with biofuel production

There are a few links to deforestation because sugar cane grows best in places that haven't been forested.
Social unrest has resulted from sugar cane growth taking over land, resulting in farm workers not growing enough food and many migrating to cities.

1Tectonic Processes & Hazards

1.1Tectonic Processes & Hazards

1.1.1Tectonic Plates

1.1.2Distribution of Tectonic Hazards

1.1.3Theoretical Frameworks

1.1.4Earthquakes

1.1.5Earthquake Hazards

1.1.6Volcanoes

1.1.7Tsunamis

1.1.8End of Topic Test - Tectonic Processes

1.1.9Exam-Style Question - Earthquakes

1.2Natural Disasters

1.2.1Introduction to Natural Disasters

1.2.2Impacts of Hazards

1.2.3Comparing Hazards

1.2.4Development & Governance

1.3Natural Disaster Case Studies

1.3.1Tohoku Earthquake & Tsunami

1.3.2Gorkha Earthquake

1.3.3Mount Merapi Eruption

1.4Trends & Patterns

1.4.1Disaster Trends

1.4.2Prediction

1.5Disaster Modification

1.5.1Hazard Management

1.5.2Modifications

1.5.3End of Topic Test - Natural Disasters

1.5.4Exam-Style Question - Disaster Modification

2Option 2A: Glaciated Landscapes & Change

2.1Glaciated Landscapes Over Time

2.1.1Timeline of Glacial Change

2.1.2Natural Causes

2.1.3Ice Distributions

2.2Periglacial Landscapes

2.2.1Periglacial Processes

2.2.2Periglacial Landforms

2.3Glacial Processes

2.3.1Mass Balance

2.3.2Glacial Movement

2.4Glacial Landforms

2.4.1Landscapes

2.4.2Erosional Landforms

2.4.3Erosional Landforms 2

2.4.4Erosional Landforms 3

2.4.5Depositional Landforms

2.4.6Fluvioglaciation

2.5The Future of Glaciated Landscapes

2.5.1The Value of Glaciated Landscapes

2.5.2The Value of Glaciated Landscapes 2

2.5.3Threats to Glaciated Landscapes

2.5.4Managing the Threats to Glaciated Landscapes

3Option 2B: Coastal Landscapes & Change

3.1Coastal Landscapes

3.1.1The Wider Coastal Landscape

3.1.2Geological Structure

3.1.3Lithology & Vegetation

3.2Coastal Erosion & Deposition

3.2.1Shaping Coastlines

3.2.2Coastal Formations

3.2.3Sediment Transportation

3.2.4Subaerial Processes

3.3Coastal Risks

3.3.1Sea Level Change

3.3.2Coastal Retreat

3.3.3Coastal Flooding

3.4Managing Coastlines

3.4.1Consequences of Coastal Recession

3.4.2Engineering Management Approaches

3.4.3Governance Approaches

4Globalisation

4.1Globalisation

4.1.1Intro to Globalisation

4.1.2Development of Globalisation

4.1.3Economic Policy & Globalisation

4.1.4Government Policy & Globalisation

4.1.5International Organisations & Globalisation

4.1.6Measuring Globalisation

4.1.7TNCs & Globalisation

4.1.8TNCs - Aramco & Anglo-Iranian Oil

4.2Negatives of Globalisation

4.2.1'Switched Off' Places

4.3Global Shift

4.3.1Global Shift for Developing Nations

4.3.2Global Shift for Developing Nations 2

4.3.3Global Shift for Developed Nations

4.3.4End of Topic Test - Globalisation

4.4Migration

4.4.1Megacities

4.4.2International Migration

4.4.3Country Interdependence

4.5Culture

4.5.1Global Culture

4.5.2Cultural Erosion

4.6Measuring Development

4.6.1Measuring Development

4.7Responses to Globalisation

4.7.1Tensions Caused by Globalisation

4.7.2Government Control of Globalisation

4.7.3Ethical Responses to Globalisation

4.7.4End of Topic Test - Migration, Culture, & Response

5Option 4A: Regenerating Places

6Option 4B: Diverse Places

6.1Population Structure

6.1.1The UK

6.1.2Population Characteristics

6.1.3Government & Change

6.2Past & Present Connections

6.2.1International Influence on Places

6.2.2Historic Influences on Places

6.2.3The Perception of Places

6.2.4Image & Identity

6.3Urban & Rural Spaces

6.3.1Perceptions of Urban Places

6.3.2Perceptions of Rural Places

6.3.3Evaluating Living Space

6.4Diversity

6.4.1UK Migrations

6.4.2Challenges

6.4.3Tensions & Conflict

6.4.4Wider Outcomes of Tensions

6.4.5Managing Tensions

6.5Urban & Rural Case Studies

6.5.1Stakeholders

6.6Case Study - Tower Hamlets

6.6.1Background

6.6.2Characteristics

6.6.3Issues

6.7Case Study - Sturton-le-Steeple

6.7.1Background

6.7.2Characteristics

6.7.3Issues

7The Water Cycle & Water Insecurity (A2 only)

7.1Hydrological Processes Global to Local

7.1.1Global Hydrological Cycle

7.1.2Drainage Basin Hydrological Cycle

7.1.3Water Budgets

7.1.4River Regimes

7.1.5Storm Hydrographs

7.2Influences on the Water Cycle

7.2.1Causes of Drought

7.2.2Impacts of Drought

7.2.3Causes of Flooding

7.2.4Impacts of Flooding

7.2.5Climate Change & The Water Cycle

7.2.6Impacts of Climate Change

7.2.7End of Topic Test - The Water Cycle

7.3Water Insecurity

7.3.1Water Stress

7.3.2Causes of Water Insecurity

7.3.3Water Insecurity Risk

7.3.4Conflict Over Water

7.4Water Supply Management

7.4.1Hard Engineering Schemes

7.4.2Sustainable Management

7.4.3Water Treaties & Framework

7.4.4End of Topic Test - Water Insecurity & Management

8The Carbon Cycle & Energy Security (A2 only)

8.1The Carbon Cycle

8.1.1Carbon Stores

8.1.2Carbon Stores 2

8.1.3Biological Carbon

8.1.4Atmospheric Carbon

8.1.5Burning Fossil Fuels

8.2Energy Consumption

8.2.1Consumption

8.2.2Access to Energy

8.2.3Energy Players

8.2.4Supply & Demand

8.2.5Pathways

8.2.6End of Topic Test - Carbon & Consumption

8.3Alternative Energy

8.3.1Unconventional Fuels

8.3.2Non-Fossil Fuels

8.3.3Non-Fossil Fuels 2

8.4Growing Demand for Resources

8.4.1Deforestation

8.4.2Water

8.4.3Climate Change

8.5The Future

8.5.1Future Uncertainty

8.5.2Adaptation Strategies

8.5.3Mitigation Strategies

9Superpowers (A2 only)

9.1Superpowers

9.1.1Introduction to Superpowers

9.1.2Superpowers - Economic Power & Size

9.1.3Superpowers - Political & Military Power

9.1.4Superpowers - Culture, Demography & Resources

9.1.5Geo-Strategic Location

9.2Hard & Soft Power

9.2.1Hard & Soft Power

9.2.2Emerging Powers - China Rivalry

9.2.3Emerging Powers - Chinese Sources of Power

9.2.4Emerging Powers - Brazil

9.2.5Emerging Powers - Russia

9.2.6Emerging Powers - India

9.2.7Theories of Development

9.2.8Power Case Studies: Chinese One Belt One Road

9.2.9Power Case Studies: Pakistan Nuclear Arms

9.2.10Power Case Studies: OPEC

9.3IGOs, TNCs & Alliances

9.3.1Superpowers & IGOs

9.3.2Superpowers & TNCs

9.3.3Superpowers & Global Action

9.3.4Superpowers & Alliances

9.3.5Superpowers & the Environment

9.4Changing Global Influence

9.4.1Recent Tensions between Powers

9.4.2China in Africa & Asia

9.4.3Tensions in the Middle East

9.4.4Economic Problems for Superpowers

9.4.5Future Pattern of Power

10Option 8A: Health & Human Rights (A2 only)

11Option 8B: Migration & Identity (A2 only)

11.1Globalisation & Migration

11.1.1Intro to Migration

11.1.2Trends in Migration

11.1.3Common Migration Patterns

11.1.4Causes of Migration

11.1.5Restrictions on Migration

11.2Consequences of Migration

11.2.1Intro to Culture

11.2.2Social & Demographic Tensions of Migration

11.2.3Political & Economic Tensions of Migration

11.3Nation States

11.3.1Intro to Nation States

11.3.2Borders

11.3.3Nationalism

11.4Responses to Global Migration

11.4.1Responses to Global Migration

11.4.2Global Organisations

11.4.3IGOs and World Trade

11.4.4Financial IGOs

11.4.5Environmental IGOs

11.5Sovereignty & Identity

11.5.1Sovereignty & Nationalism

11.5.2Complex Identities

11.5.3Challenges to National Identities

11.5.4Tensions within Nations

11.5.5Failed States

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