1.1.3

Theoretical Frameworks

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The Earth's Internal Structure

The Earth can be broken down into segments such as the core, mantle, asthenosphere and lithosphere.

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The core

  • The core is the central part of the Earth.
  • It is made up of an inner core and outer core.
  • The inner core is solid, the outer core is liquid. Both are made from iron and nickel.
  • The core is a source of radioactive heat.
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The mantle

  • The mantle is a semi-molten body of rock between the Earth’s crust and its core.
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The asthenosphere

  • The asthenosphere is part of the mantle.
  • The asthenosphere is semi-molten.
  • It is below the lithosphere, which floats on top of it.
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The lithosphere

  • The lithosphere is the crust and upper mantle which form the tectonic plates.
  • Together they are 80-90km thick
  • The crust changes in thickness under oceans and continents.
    • Under oceans, the crust is 6-10km thick.
    • Under continents, the crust is 30-40km thick.

The Theory of Plate Tectonics

Theoretical frameworks attempt to explain plate movements. There have been a variety of theories and discoveries over recent times. For example:

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Wegener’s Continental Drift

  • Wegener’s Continental Drift hypothesis (1912) said that our now separate continents had once been joined together as supercontinents e.g. Pangea.
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Holmes' Hypothesis

  • Holmes (1930s) said that the Earth’s internal radioactive heat was the driving force of convection currents in the mantle that could move tectonic plates.
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Sea floor spreading

  • In the 1960s, there was a discovery of magnetic stripes in the oceanic crust of the seabed.
  • Palaeomagnetic signals from past reversals of the Earth’s magnetic field prove that new crust is created by the process of seafloor spreading at mid-ocean ridges.
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Gravitational sliding

  • Elevated altitudes of oceanic crust at ridges at divergent plate boundaries – create a ‘slope’ down which oceanic plates slide (gravitational sliding).
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Slab pull

  • At convergent boundaries, the high-density ocean floor is being dragged down by a downward gravitational force (slab pull) beneath the adjoining continental crust.

Processes at Different Plate Margins

There are four main types of process that happen at plate margins:

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Processes at divergent margins

  • Volcanic eruptions at divergent plate margins are basaltic and produce low viscosity lava.
  • Earthquakes at divergent plate margins are low magnitude and shallow focus (less than 70 km deep).
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Processes at convergent margins

  • Deep-sea trenches and fold mountain ranges often form at convergent plate margins.
  • Volcanic activity at convergent plate margins is often violent due to the high viscosity lava.
  • Earthquakes at convergent plate margins are high magnitude, deep-focus (up to 700 km deep) and frequent.
    • An example of this type of plate margin can be seen in western South America.
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Processes at collision margins

  • Collision plate margins are characterised by the meeting of two continental landmasses resulting in the formation of a fold mountain belt.
    • E.g. The collision between the Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates has created the Himalayan mountain range.
  • There is no volcanic activity at collision plate margins.
  • Earthquakes at collision plate margins are rare - when they do happen, they are high magnitude and shallow-focus (less than 70 km deep).
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Processes at conservative margins

  • There is no volcanic activity at conservative plate margins.
  • Earthquakes at conservative plate margins are high magnitude, shallow-focus (less than 70 km deep) and a common occurrence.
    • An example of this type of plate margin is the San Andreas fault in California.

Jump to other topics

1Tectonic Processes & Hazards

2Option 2A: Glaciated Landscapes & Change

3Option 2B: Coastal Landscapes & Change

4Globalisation

5Option 4A: Regenerating Places

6Option 4B: Diverse Places

7The Water Cycle & Water Insecurity (A2 only)

8The Carbon Cycle & Energy Security (A2 only)

9Superpowers (A2 only)

10Option 8A: Health & Human Rights (A2 only)

11Option 8B: Migration & Identity (A2 only)

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