Synapses

A synapse is a junction between two neurones (e.g. a relay neurone and a motor neurone) or between a neurone and an effector (e.g a motor neurone and a muscle cell). The features of synapses are:

Structure

Synaptic cleft

At a synapse, there is a gap between the cells. This gap is called the synaptic cleft.
When an action potential reaches a synapse, it must be transmitted across the synaptic cleft.

Presynaptic neurone

The presynaptic neurone is the neurone before the synapse.
When an action potential reaches the end of the neurone, it is transmitted across the presynaptic membrane to the postsynaptic membrane or to an effector cell.

Synaptic knob

The end of the axon of the presynaptic neurone is called the synaptic knob.
The synaptic knob is a swelling which contains synaptic vesicles.
The synaptic knob is the location where the nerve impulse is transmitted across the synpatic cleft.
There are also lots of mitochondria in the synaptic knob. This is because lots of energy is needed to synthesise neurotransmitters.

Synaptic vesicles

Synaptic vesicles are vesicles located in the synaptic knob.
The vesicles contain neurotransmitters. The vesicles fuse with the presynaptic membrane to release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.

Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters are the chemicals that allow an action potential to be transferred across a synapse.
When neurotransmitters are released from the synaptic vesicles into the synaptic cleft, they bind to specific receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.

Postsynaptic membrane

The postsynaptic membrane is the membrane of the postsynaptic neurone or effector cells.
Receptors on the postsynaptic membrane have a complementary shape to the neurotransmitters released from the synaptic knob.
When neurotransmitters bind to their receptors, the action potential continues.
There are only receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. This ensures the nerve impulse only moves in one direction.

Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters are the chemicals that allow an action potential to be transmitted across a synapse. They can be excitatory or inhibitory.

Excitatory

Excitatory neurotransmitters generate an action potential in the postsynaptic cell.
When the neurotransmitters bind to the receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, the membrane is depolarised.
E.g. when acetylcholine binds to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane in the central nervous system (CNS) an action potential is established.

Inhibitory

Inhibitory neurotransmitters prevent an action potential from being generated in the postsynaptic cell.
When the neurotransmitters bind to the receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, the membrane is hyperpolarised.
E.g. when acetylcholine binds to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane in the heart, potassium ion channels are opened in the membrane. This prevents an action potential from being established.

Summation

Summation is the process where neurotransmitters from multiple neurones are summed together to produce a response. There are two types of summation: spatial and temporal.

Spatial summation

Spatial summation takes place when multiple presynaptic neurones form a junction with a single neurone.
Each presynaptic neurone releases neurotransmitters. Overall there are many neurotransmitters that bind to the receptors on one postsynaptic membrane.
Together the neurotransmitters can establish a generator potential that reaches the threshold value and an action potential is generated.

Temporal summation

Temporal summation takes place when multiple nerve impulses arrive at the same synaptic knob within a short period of time.
More neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft, so more neurotransmitter is available to bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.
Together the neurotransmitters can establish a generator potential that reaches the threshold value and an action potential is generated.

1Biological Molecules

1.1Monomers & Polymers

1.1.1Monomers & Polymers

1.1.2Condensation & Hydrolysis Reactions

1.2Carbohydrates

1.2.1Structure of Carbohydrates

1.2.2Types of Polysaccharides

1.2.3End of Topic Test - Monomers, Polymers and Carbs

1.2.4Exam-Style Question - Carbohydrates

1.2.5A-A* (AO3/4) - Carbohydrates

1.3Lipids

1.3.1Triglycerides & Phospholipids

1.3.2Types of Fatty Acids

1.3.3Testing for Lipids

1.3.4Exam-Style Question - Fats

1.3.5A-A* (AO3/4) - Lipids

1.4Proteins

1.4.1The Peptide Chain

1.4.2Investigating Proteins

1.4.3Primary & Secondary Protein Structure

1.4.4Tertiary & Quaternary Protein Structure

1.4.5Enzymes

1.4.6Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

1.4.7Enzyme-Controlled Reactions

1.4.8End of Topic Test - Lipids & Proteins

1.4.9A-A* (AO3/4) - Enzymes

1.4.10A-A* (AO3/4) - Proteins

1.5Nucleic Acids

1.5.1DNA & RNA

1.5.2Nucleotides

1.5.3Polynucleotides

1.5.4DNA Replication

1.5.5Exam-Style Question - Nucleic Acids

1.5.6A-A* (AO3/4) - Nucleic Acids

1.6ATP

1.6.1Structure of ATP

1.6.2Hydrolysis of ATP

1.6.3Resynthesis of ATP

1.6.4End of Topic Test - Nucleic Acids & ATP

1.7Water

1.7.1Importance of Water

1.7.2Structure of Water

1.7.3Properties of Water

1.7.4A-A* (AO3/4) - Water

1.8Inorganic Ions

1.8.1Inorganic Ions

1.8.2End of Topic Test - Water & Inorganic Ions

2Cells

2.1Cell Structure

2.1.1Introduction to Cells

2.1.2Eukaryotic Cells & Organelles

2.1.3Eukaryotic Cells & Organelles 2

2.1.4Prokaryotes

2.1.5A-A* (AO3/4) - Organelles

2.1.6Methods of Studying Cells

2.1.7Microscopes

2.1.8End of Topic Test - Cell Structure

2.1.9Exam-Style Question - Cells

2.1.10A-A* (AO3/4) - Cells

2.2Mitosis & Cancer

2.2.1Mitosis

2.2.2Stages of Mitosis

2.2.3Investigating Mitosis

2.2.4Cancer

2.2.5A-A* (AO3/4) - The Cell Cycle

2.3Transport Across Cell Membrane

2.3.1Cell Membrane Structure

2.3.2A-A* (AO3/4) - Membrane Structure

2.3.3Diffusion

2.3.4Osmosis

2.3.5Active Transport

2.3.6End of Topic Test - Mitosis, Cancer & Transport

2.3.7Exam-Style Question - Membranes

2.3.8A-A* (AO3/4) - Membranes & Transport

2.3.9A-A*- Mitosis, Cancer & Transport

2.4Cell Recognition & the Immune System

2.4.1Immune System

2.4.2Phagocytosis

2.4.3T Lymphocytes

2.4.4B Lymphocytes

2.4.5Antibodies

2.4.6Primary & Secondary Response

2.4.7Vaccines

2.4.8HIV

2.4.9Ethical Issues

2.4.10End of Topic Test - Immune System

2.4.11Exam-Style Question - Immune System

2.4.12A-A* (AO3/4) - Immune System

3Substance Exchange

3.1Surface Area to Volume Ratio

3.1.1Size & Surface Area

3.1.2A-A* (AO3/4) - Cell Size

3.2Gas Exchange

3.2.1Single-Celled Organisms

3.2.2Multicellular Organisms

3.2.3Control of Water Loss

3.2.4Human Gas Exchange

3.2.5Ventilation

3.2.6Dissection

3.2.7Measuring Gas Exchange

3.2.8Lung Disease

3.2.9Lung Disease Data

3.2.10End of Topic Test - Gas Exchange

3.2.11A-A* (AO3/4) - Gas Exchange

3.3Digestion & Absorption

3.3.1Overview of Digestion

3.3.2Digestion in Mammals

3.3.3Absorption

3.3.4End of Topic Test - Substance Exchange & Digestion

3.3.5A-A* (AO3/4) - Substance Ex & Digestion

3.4Mass Transport

3.4.1Haemoglobin

3.4.2Oxygen Transport

3.4.3The Circulatory System

3.4.4The Heart

3.4.5Blood Vessels

3.4.6Cardiovascular Disease

3.4.7Heart Dissection

3.4.8Xylem

3.4.9Phloem

3.4.10Investigating Plant Transport

3.4.11End of Topic Test - Mass Transport

3.4.12A-A* (AO3/4) - Mass Transport

4Genetic Information & Variation

4.1DNA, Genes & Chromosomes

4.1.1DNA

4.1.2Genes

4.1.3Non-Coding Genes

4.1.4The Genetic Code

4.1.5A-A* (AO3/4) - DNA

4.2DNA & Protein Synthesis

4.2.1Protein Synthesis

4.2.2Transcription & Translation

4.2.3End of Topic Test - DNA, Genes & Protein Synthesis

4.2.4Exam-Style Question - Protein Synthesis

4.2.5A-A* (AO3/4) - Coronavirus Translation

4.2.6A-A* (AO3/4) - Transcription

4.2.7A-A* (AO3/4) - Translation

4.3Mutations & Meiosis

4.3.1Mutations

4.3.2Meiosis

4.3.3A-A* (AO3/4) - Meiosis

4.3.4Meiosis vs Mitosis

4.3.5End of Topic Test - Mutations, Meiosis

4.3.6A-A* (AO3/4) - DNA,Genes, CellDiv & ProtSynth

4.4Genetic Diversity & Adaptation

4.4.1Genetic Diversity

4.4.2Natural Selection

4.4.3A-A* (AO3/4) - Natural Selection

4.4.4Adaptations

4.4.5Investigating Natural Selection

4.4.6End of Topic Test - Genetic Diversity & Adaptation

4.4.7A-A* (AO3/4) - Genetic Diversity & Adaptation

4.5Species & Taxonomy

4.5.1Courtship Behaviour

4.5.2Phylogeny

4.5.3Classification

4.5.4DNA Technology

4.5.5A-A* (AO3/4) - Species & Taxonomy

4.6Biodiversity Within a Community

4.6.1Biodiversity

4.6.2Index of diversity

4.6.3Agriculture

4.6.4End of Topic Test - Species,Taxonomy& Biodiversity

4.6.5A-A* (AO3/4) - Species,Taxon&Biodiversity

4.7Investigating Diversity

4.7.1Genetic Diversity

4.7.2Quantitative Investigation

5Energy Transfers (A2 only)

5.1Photosynthesis

5.1.1Overview of Photosynthesis

5.1.2Photoionisation of Chlorophyll

5.1.3Production of ATP & Reduced NADP

5.1.4Cyclic Photophosphorylation

5.1.5Light-Independent Reaction

5.1.6A-A* (AO3/4) - Photosynthesis Reactions

5.1.7Limiting Factors

5.1.8Photosynthesis Experiments

5.1.9End of Topic Test - Photosynthesis

5.1.10A-A* (AO3/4) - Photosynthesis

5.2Respiration

5.2.1Overview of Respiration

5.2.2Anaerobic Respiration

5.2.3A-A* (AO3/4) - Anaerobic Respiration

5.2.4The Link Reaction

5.2.5The Krebs Cycle

5.2.6Oxidative Phosphorylation

5.2.7Respiration Experiments

5.2.8End of Topic Test - Respiration

5.2.9A-A* (AO3/4) - Respiration

5.3Energy & Ecosystems

5.3.1Biomass

5.3.2Production & Productivity

5.3.3Agricultural Practices

5.4Nutrient Cycles

5.4.1Nitrogen Cycle

5.4.2Phosphorous Cycle

5.4.3Fertilisers & Eutrophication

5.4.4End of Topic Test - Nutrient Cycles

5.4.5A-A* (AO3/4) - Energy,Ecosystems&NutrientCycles

6Responding to Change (A2 only)

6.1Nervous Communication

6.1.1Survival

6.1.2Plant Responses

6.1.3Animal Responses

6.1.4Reflexes

6.1.5End of Topic Test - Reflexes, Responses & Survival

6.1.6Receptors

6.1.7The Human Retina

6.1.8Control of Heart Rate

6.1.9End of Topic Test - Receptors, Retina & Heart Rate

6.2Nervous Coordination

6.2.1Neurones

6.2.2Action Potentials

6.2.3Speed of Transmission

6.2.4End of Topic Test - Neurones & Action Potentials

6.2.5Synapses

6.2.6Types of Synapse

6.2.7Medical Application

6.2.8End of Topic Test - Synapses

6.2.9A-A* (AO3/4) - Nervous Comm&Coord

6.3Muscle Contraction

6.3.1Skeletal Muscle

6.3.2Sliding Filament Theory

6.3.3Contraction

6.3.4Slow & Fast Twitch Fibres

6.3.5End of Topic Test - Muscles

6.3.6A-A* (AO3/4) - Muscle Contraction

6.4Homeostasis

6.4.1Overview of Homeostasis

6.4.2Blood Glucose Concentration

6.4.3Controlling Blood Glucose Concentration

6.4.4End of Topic Test - Blood Glucose

6.4.5Primary & Secondary Messengers

6.4.6Diabetes Mellitus

6.4.7Measuring Glucose Concentration

6.4.8Osmoregulation

6.4.9Controlling Blood Water Potential

6.4.10ADH

6.4.11End of Topic Test - Diabetes & Osmoregulation

6.4.12A-A* (AO3/4) - Homeostasis

7Genetics & Ecosystems (A2 only)

7.1Genetics

7.1.1Key Terms in Genetics

7.1.2Inheritance

7.1.3Linkage

7.1.4Multiple Alleles & Epistasis

7.1.5Chi-Squared Test

7.1.6End of Topic Test - Genetics

7.1.7A-A* (AO3/4) - Genetics

7.2Populations

7.2.1Populations

7.2.2Hardy-Weinberg Principle

7.3Evolution

7.3.1Variation

7.3.2Natural Selection & Evolution

7.3.3End of Topic Test - Populations & Evolution

7.3.4Types of Selection

7.3.5Types of Selection Summary

7.3.6Overview of Speciation

7.3.7Causes of Speciation

7.3.8Diversity

7.3.9End of Topic Test - Selection & Speciation

7.3.10A-A* (AO3/4) - Populations & Evolution

7.4Populations in Ecosystems

7.4.1Overview of Ecosystems

7.4.2Niche

7.4.3Population Size

7.4.4Investigating Population Size

7.4.5End of Topic Test - Ecosystems & Population Size

7.4.6Succession

7.4.7Conservation

7.4.8End of Topic Test - Succession & Conservation

7.4.9A-A* (AO3/4) - Ecosystems

8The Control of Gene Expression (A2 only)

8.1Mutation

8.1.1Mutations

8.1.2Effects of Mutations

8.1.3Causes of Mutations

8.2Gene Expression

8.2.1Stem Cells

8.2.2Stem Cells in Disease

8.2.3End of Topic Test - Mutation & Gene Epression

8.2.4A-A* (AO3/4) - Mutation & Stem Cells

8.2.5Regulating Transcription

8.2.6Epigenetics

8.2.7Epigenetics & Disease

8.2.8Regulating Translation

8.2.9Experimental Data

8.2.10End of Topic Test - Transcription & Translation

8.2.11Tumours

8.2.12Correlations & Causes

8.2.13Prevention & Treatment

8.2.14End of Topic Test - Cancer

8.2.15A-A* (AO3/4) - Gene Expression & Cancer

8.3Genome Projects

8.3.1Using Genome Projects

8.4Gene Technology

8.4.1Recombinant DNA

8.4.2Producing Fragments

8.4.3Amplification

8.4.4End of Topic Test - Genome Project & Amplification

8.4.5Using Recombinant DNA

8.4.6Medical Diagnosis

8.4.7Genetic Fingerprinting

8.4.8End of Topic Test - Gene Technologies

8.4.9A-A* (AO3/4) - Gene Technology

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