9.2.1

Social Exchange Theory

Test yourself

Social Exchange Theory

Social exchange theory (SET) uses economic assumptions of exchange to study relationships.

Illustrative background for Definition of SETIllustrative background for Definition of SET ?? "content

Definition of SET

  • Thibault and Kelley (1959) first proposed social exchange theory (SET).
  • The theory states that partners try to minimise losses and maximise gains (the minimax principle).
  • People judge their satisfaction with a relationship in terms of the profit it yields, minus the costs.
Illustrative background for Rewards and costsIllustrative background for Rewards and costs ?? "content

Rewards and costs

  • Rewards and costs are subjective. So there are a wide range of possible outcomes.
  • What one person considers a significant reward might not be thought of as particularly valuable to another person.
    • E.g. you might consider praise to be a significant reward while your partner might see it as superfluous.
  • And what someone considers to be rewarding or costly can change over the course of a relationship.
Illustrative background for __Blau (1964)__ Illustrative background for __Blau (1964)__ ?? "content

Blau (1964)

  • Blau (1964) stated that relationships can be expensive/costly in terms of time, stress, energy, compromise, etc.
  • Relationships also incur an opportunity cost.
  • This is the investment of time, energy and resources in a relationship that someone then cannot invest elsewhere.

Comparison Level and Comparison Level for Alternatives

Thibault and Kelley (1959) identified two ways we measure the profits of a romantic relationship.

Illustrative background for Measuring profitIllustrative background for Measuring profit ?? "content

Measuring profit

  • According to Thibault and Kelley (1959), there are two ways in which we measure the profits in a romantic relationship:
    • Comparison level (CL).
    • Comparison level for alternatives (CLalt).
Illustrative background for Comparison level (CL) Illustrative background for Comparison level (CL) ?? "content

Comparison level (CL)

  • Comparison level (CL) is the amount of reward you believe you deserve to get. CL develops from the experiences of previous relationships.
  • These, in turn, influence our expectations of our current relationship.
  • CL is also influenced by the social norms that determine what people consider to be a reasonable level of reward.
    • This is influenced by cultural expectations (especially as represented within the media: books, films, etc.)
Illustrative background for Determining CLIllustrative background for Determining CL ?? "content

Determining CL

  • As we experience more relationships, our CL changes to reflect this extra information.
  • A relationship is considered worth pursuing if CL is high.
  • This means CL is linked to self-esteem.
  • Someone with low self-esteem will have low CL and will be satisfied with only a small profit (or even a loss).
  • Someone with high self-esteem will see themselves as being worth more.
Illustrative background for Comparison level for alternatives (CLalt) Illustrative background for Comparison level for alternatives (CLalt) ?? "content

Comparison level for alternatives (CLalt)

  • CLalt offers a wider context for our current relationship.
  • It refers to a person assessing the costs and rewards of their current relationship, and comparing this to an alternative relationship or being on their own.
  • Social exchange theory (SET) predicts that we will stay in our current relationship only so long as we believe it is more rewarding than the alternatives.
Illustrative background for __Duck (1994)__ on CLaltIllustrative background for __Duck (1994)__ on CLalt ?? "content

Duck (1994) on CLalt

  • According to Duck (1994), the CLalt we adopt will depend on the state of our current relationship.
    • Because other potential relationships exists, we might decide to abandon our current relationship if the cost of our current relationship outweighs the benefits.
  • But if our current relationship is satisfying, in terms of benefits over costs, it is unlikely that we would have noticed any available alternatives.

The Four Stages of Social Exchange Theory (SET)

Another feature of social exchange theory concerns the four stages through which relationships, and the social exchanges that underpin them, develop.

Illustrative background for Sampling stageIllustrative background for Sampling stage ?? "content

Sampling stage

  • Sampling stage: we explore the rewards and costs of social exchange by experimenting with them in our relationships (not just romantic ones), or by observing others doing so.
Illustrative background for Bargaining stageIllustrative background for Bargaining stage ?? "content

Bargaining stage

  • Bargaining stage: this marks the beginning of a relationship, when romantic partners start exchanging various rewards and costs, negotiating and identifying what is most profitable.
Illustrative background for Commitment stageIllustrative background for Commitment stage ?? "content

Commitment stage

  • Commitment stage: as the relationship moves on, the sources of costs and rewards become more predictable and the relationship becomes more stable as rewards increase and costs lessen.
Illustrative background for Institutional stageIllustrative background for Institutional stage ?? "content

Institutional stage

  • Institutional stage: where partners are now settled down because the norms of the relationship, in terms of rewards and costs, are firmly established.

Jump to other topics

1Social Influence

1.1Social Influence

1.1.1Conformity

1.1.2Asch (1951)

1.1.3Sherif (1935)

1.1.4Conformity to Social Roles

1.1.5BBC Prison Study

1.1.6End of Topic Test - Conformity

1.1.7Obedience

1.1.8Analysing Milgram's Experiment

1.1.9Agentic State & Legitimate Authority

1.1.10Variables of Obedience

1.1.11Resistance to Social Influence

1.1.12Minority Influence & Social Change

1.1.13Minority Influence & Social Impact Theory

1.1.14End of Topic Test - Social Influences

1.1.15Exam-Style Question - Conformity

1.1.16Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Social Influence

2Memory

2.1Memory

2.1.1Multi-Store Model of Memory

2.1.2Short-Term vs Long-Term Memory

2.1.3Long-Term Memory

2.1.4Support for the Multi-Store Model of Memory

2.1.5Duration Studies

2.1.6Capacity Studies

2.1.7Coding Studies

2.1.8The Working Memory Model

2.1.9The Working Memory Model 2

2.1.10Support for the Working Memory Model

2.1.11Explanations for Forgetting

2.1.12Studies on Interference

2.1.13Cue-Dependent Forgetting

2.1.14Eye Witness Testimony - Loftus & Palmer

2.1.15Eye Witness Testimony Loftus

2.1.16Eyewitness Testimony - Post-Event Discussion

2.1.17Eyewitness Testimony - Age & Misleading Questions

2.1.18Cognitive Interview

2.1.19Cognitive Interview - Geiselman & Fisher

2.1.20End of Topic Test - Memory

2.1.21Exam-Style Question - Memory

2.1.22A-A* (AO3/4) - Memory

3Attachment

3.1Attachment

3.1.1Caregiver-Infant Interaction

3.1.2Condon & Sander (1974)

3.1.3Schaffer & Emerson (1964)

3.1.4Multiple Attachments

3.1.5Studies on the Role of the Father

3.1.6Animal Studies of Attachment

3.1.7Explanations of Attachment

3.1.8Attachment Types - Strange Situation

3.1.9Cultural Differences in Attachment

3.1.10Disruption of Attachment

3.1.11Disruption of Attachment - Privation

3.1.12Overcoming the Effects of Disruption

3.1.13The Effects of Institutionalisation

3.1.14Early Attachment

3.1.15Critical Period of Attachment

3.1.16End of Topic Test - Attachment

3.1.17Exam-Style Question - Attachment

3.1.18Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Attachment

4Psychopathology

4.1Psychopathology

4.1.1Definitions of Abnormality

4.1.2Definitions of Abnormality 2

4.1.3Phobias, Depression & OCD

4.1.4Phobias: Behavioural Approach

4.1.5Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias

4.1.6Depression: Cognitive Approach

4.1.7OCD: Biological Approach

4.1.8Evidence for the Biological Approach

4.1.9End of Topic Test - Psychopathy

4.1.10Exam-Style Question - Phobias

4.1.11Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology

5Approaches in Psychology

5.1Approaches in Psychology

5.1.1Psychology as a Science

5.1.2Origins of Psychology

5.1.3Reductionism & Problems with Introspection

5.1.4The Behaviourist Approach - Classical Conditioning

5.1.5Pavlov's Experiment

5.1.6Little Albert Study

5.1.7The Behaviourist Approach - Operant Conditioning

5.1.8Social Learning Theory

5.1.9The Cognitive Approach 1

5.1.10The Cognitive Approach 2

5.1.11The Biological Approach

5.1.12Gottesman (1991) - Twin Studies

5.1.13Brain Scanning

5.1.14Structure of Personality & Little Hans

5.1.15The Psychodynamic Approach (A2 only)

5.1.16Humanistic Psychology (A2 only)

5.1.17Aronoff (1957) (A2 Only)

5.1.18Rogers' Client-Centred Therapy (A2 only)

5.1.19End of Topic Test - Approaches in Psychology

5.1.20Exam-Style Question - Approaches in Psychology

5.2Comparison of Approaches (A2 only)

5.2.1Psychodynamic Approach

5.2.2Cognitive Approach

5.2.3Biological Approach

5.2.4Behavioural Approach

5.2.5End of Topic Test - Comparison of Approaches

6Biopsychology

6.1Biopsychology

6.1.1Nervous System Divisions

6.1.2Neuron Structure & Function

6.1.3Neurotransmitters

6.1.4Endocrine System Function

6.1.5Fight or Flight Response

6.1.6The Brain (A2 only)

6.1.7Localisation of Brain Function (A2 only)

6.1.8Studying the Brain (A2 only)

6.1.9CIMT (A2 Only) & Postmortem Examinations

6.1.10Biological Rhythms (A2 only)

6.1.11Studies on Biological Rhythms (A2 Only)

6.1.12End of Topic Test - Biopsychology

6.1.13Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Biopsychology

7Research Methods

7.1Research Methods

7.1.1Experimental Method

7.1.2Observational Techniques

7.1.3Covert, Overt & Controlled Observation

7.1.4Self-Report Techniques

7.1.5Correlations

7.1.6Exam-Style Question - Research Methods

7.1.7End of Topic Test - Research Methods

7.2Scientific Processes

7.2.1Aims, Hypotheses & Sampling

7.2.2Pilot Studies & Design

7.2.3Questionnaires

7.2.4Variables & Control

7.2.5Demand Characteristics & Investigator Effects

7.2.6Ethics

7.2.7Limitations of Ethical Guidelines

7.2.8Consent & Protection from Harm Studies

7.2.9Peer Review & The Economy

7.2.10Validity (A2 only)

7.2.11Reliability (A2 only)

7.2.12Features of Science (A2 only)

7.2.13Paradigms & Falsifiability (A2 only)

7.2.14Scientific Report (A2 only)

7.2.15Scientific Report 2 (A2 only)

7.2.16End of Topic Test - Scientific Processes

7.3Data Handling & Analysis

7.3.1Types of Data

7.3.2Descriptive Statistics

7.3.3Correlation

7.3.4Evaluation of Descriptive Statistics

7.3.5Presentation & Display of Data

7.3.6Levels of Measurement (A2 only)

7.3.7Content Analysis (A2 only)

7.3.8Case Studies (A2 only)

7.3.9Thematic Analysis (A2 only)

7.3.10End of Topic Test - Data Handling & Analysis

7.4Inferential Testing

7.4.1Introduction to Inferential Testing

7.4.2Sign Test

7.4.3Piaget Conservation Experiment

7.4.4Non-Parametric Tests

8Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)

8.1Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)

8.1.1Culture Bias

8.1.2Sub-Culture Bias

8.1.3Gender Bias

8.1.4Ethnocentrism

8.1.5Cross Cultural Research

8.1.6Free Will & Determinism

8.1.7Comparison of Free Will & Determinism

8.1.8Reductionism & Holism

8.1.9Reductionist & Holistic Approaches

8.1.10Nature-Nurture Debate

8.1.11Interactionist Approach

8.1.12Nature-Nurture Methods

8.1.13Nature-Nurture Approaches

8.1.14Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches

8.1.15Socially Sensitive Research

8.1.16End of Topic Test - Issues and Debates

9Option 1: Relationships (A2 only)

9.1Relationships: Sexual Relationships (A2 only)

9.1.1Sexual Selection & Human Reproductive Behaviour

9.1.2Intersexual & Intrasexual Selection

9.1.3Evaluation of Sexual Selection Behaviour

9.1.4Factors Affecting Attraction: Self-Disclosure

9.1.5Evaluation of Self-Disclosure Theory

9.1.6Self Disclosure in Computer Communication

9.1.7Factors Affecting Attraction: Physical Attributes

9.1.8Matching Hypothesis Studies

9.1.9Factors Affecting Physical Attraction

9.1.10Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 1

9.1.11Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 2

9.1.12Evaluation of Filter Theory

9.1.13End of Topic Test - Sexual Relationships

9.2Relationships: Romantic Relationships (A2 only)

9.2.1Social Exchange Theory

9.2.2Evaluation of Social Exchange Theory

9.2.3Equity Theory

9.2.4Evaluation of Equity Theory

9.2.5Rusbult’s Investment Model

9.2.6Evaluation of Rusbult's Investment Model

9.2.7Relationship Breakdown

9.2.8Studies on Relationship Breakdown

9.2.9Evaluation of Relationship Breakdown

9.2.10End of Topic Test - Romantic relationships

9.3Relationships: Virtual & Parasocial (A2 only)

9.3.1Virtual Relationships in Social Media

9.3.2Evaluation of Reduced Cues & Hyperpersonal

9.3.3Parasocial Relationships

9.3.4Attachment Theory & Parasocial Relationships

9.3.5Evaluation of Parasocial Relationship Theories

9.3.6End of Topic Test - Virtual & Parasocial Realtions

10Option 1: Gender (A2 only)

10.1Gender (A2 only)

10.1.1Sex, Gender & Androgyny

10.1.2Gender Identity Disorder

10.1.3Biological & Social Explanations of GID

10.1.4Biological Influences on Gender

10.1.5Effects of Hormones on Gender

10.1.6End of Topic Test - Gender 1

10.1.7Kohlberg’s Theory of Gender Constancy

10.1.8Evaluation of Kohlberg's Theory

10.1.9Gender Schema Theory

10.1.10Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 1

10.1.11Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 2

10.1.12Social Approach to Gender Development

10.1.13Criticisms of Social Theory

10.1.14End of Topic Test - Gender 2

10.1.15Media Influence on Gender Development

10.1.16Cross Cultural Research

10.1.17Childcare & Gender Roles

10.1.18End of Topic Test - Gender 3

11Option 1: Cognition & Development (A2 only)

11.1Cognition & Development (A2 only)

11.1.1Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 1

11.1.2Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 2

11.1.3Schema Accommodation Assimilation & Equilibration

11.1.4Piaget & Inhelder’s Three Mountains Task (1956)

11.1.5Conservation & Class Inclusion

11.1.6Evaluation of Piaget

11.1.7End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 1

11.1.8Vygotsky

11.1.9Evaluation of Vygotsky

11.1.10Baillargeon

11.1.11Baillargeon's studies

11.1.12Evaluation of Baillargeon

11.1.13End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 2

11.1.14Sense of Self & Theory of Mind

11.1.15Baron-Cohen Studies

11.1.16Selman’s Five Levels of Perspective Taking

11.1.17Biological Basis of Social Cognition

11.1.18Evaluation of Biological Basis of Social Cognition

11.1.19Important Issues in Social Neuroscience

11.1.20End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 3

11.1.21Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Cognition & Development

12Option 2: Schizophrenia (A2 only)

12.1Schizophrenia: Diagnosis (A2 only)

12.1.1Classification & Diagnosis

12.1.2Reliability & Validity of Diagnosis

12.1.3Gender & Cultural Bias

12.1.4Pinto (2017) & Copeland (1971)

12.1.5End of Topic Test - Scizophrenia Diagnosis

12.2Schizophrenia: Treatment (A2 only)

12.2.1Family-Based Psychological Explanations

12.2.2Evaluation of Family-Based Explanations

12.2.3Cognitive Explanations

12.2.4Drug Therapies

12.2.5Evaluation of Drug Therapies

12.2.6Biological Explanations for Schizophrenia

12.2.7Dopamine Hypothesis

12.2.8End of Topic Test - Schizoprenia Treatment 1

12.2.9Psychological Therapies 1

12.2.10Psychological Therapies 2

12.2.11Evaluation of Psychological Therapies

12.2.12Interactionist Approach - Diathesis-Stress Model

12.2.13Interactionist Approach - Triggers & Treatment

12.2.14Evaluation of the Interactionist Approach

12.2.15End of Topic Test - Scizophrenia Treatments 2

13Option 2: Eating Behaviour (A2 only)

13.1Eating Behaviour (A2 only)

13.1.1Explanations for Food Preferences

13.1.2Birch et al (1987) & Lowe et al (2004)

13.1.3Control of Eating Behaviours

13.1.4Control of Eating Behaviour: Leptin

13.1.5Biological Explanations for Anorexia Nervosa

13.1.6Psychological Explanations: Family Systems Theory

13.1.7Psychological Explanations: Social Learning Theory

13.1.8Psychological Explanations: Cognitive Theory

13.1.9Biological Explanations for Obesity

13.1.10Biological Explanations: Studies

13.1.11Psychological Explanations for Obesity

13.1.12Psychological Explanations: Studies

13.1.13End of Topic Test - Eating Behaviour

14Option 2: Stress (A2 only)

14.1Stress (A2 only)

14.1.1Physiology of Stress

14.1.2Role of Stress in Illness

14.1.3Role of Stress in Illness: Studies

14.1.4Social Readjustment Rating Scales

14.1.5Hassles & Uplifts Scales

14.1.6Stress, Workload & Control

14.1.7Stress Level Studies

14.1.8End of Topic Test - Stress 1

14.1.9Physiological Measures of Stress

14.1.10Individual Differences

14.1.11Stress & Gender

14.1.12Drug Therapy & Biofeedback for Stress

14.1.13Stress Inoculation Therapy

14.1.14Social Support & Stress

14.1.15End of Topic Test - Stress 2

15Option 3: Aggression (A2 only)

15.1Aggression: Physiological (A2 only)

15.1.1Neural Mechanisms

15.1.2Serotonin

15.1.3Hormonal Mechanisms

15.1.4Genetic Factors

15.1.5Genetic Factors 2

15.1.6End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 1

15.1.7Ethological Explanation

15.1.8Innate Releasing Mechanisms & Fixed Action Pattern

15.1.9Evolutionary Explanations

15.1.10Buss et al (1992) - Sex Differences in Jealousy

15.1.11Evaluation of Evolutionary Explanations

15.1.12End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 2

15.2Aggression: Social Psychological (A2 only)

15.2.1Social Psychological Explanation

15.2.2Buss (1963) - Frustration/Aggression

15.2.3Social Psychological Explanation 2

15.2.4Social Learning Theory (SLT) 1

15.2.5Social Learning Theory (SLT) 2

15.2.6Limitations of Social Learning Theory (SLT)

15.2.7Deindividuation

15.2.8Deindividuation 2

15.2.9Deindividuation - Diener et al (1976)

15.2.10End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology

15.2.11Institutional Aggression: Prisons

15.2.12Evaluation of Dispositional & Situational

15.2.13Influence of Computer Games

15.2.14Influence of Television

15.2.15Evaluation of Studies on Media

15.2.16Desensitisation & Disinhibition

15.2.17Cognitive Priming

15.2.18End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology

16Option 3: Forensic Psychology (A2 only)

16.1Forensic Psychology (A2 only)

16.1.1Defining Crime

16.1.2Measuring Crime

16.1.3Offender Profiling

16.1.4Evaluation of Offender Profiling

16.1.5John Duffy Case Study

16.1.6Biological Explanations 1

16.1.7Biological Explanations 2

16.1.8Evaluation of the Biological Explanation

16.1.9Cognitive Explanations

16.1.10Moral Reasoning

16.1.11Psychodynamic Explanation 1

16.1.12Psychodynamic Explanation 2

16.1.13End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 1

16.1.14Differential Association Theory

16.1.15Custodial Sentencing

16.1.16Effects of Prison

16.1.17Evaluation of the Effects of Prison

16.1.18Recidivism

16.1.19Behavioural Treatments & Therapies

16.1.20Effectiveness of Behavioural Treatments

16.1.21Restorative Justice

16.1.22End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 2

17Option 3: Addiction (A2 only)

17.1Addiction (A2 only)

17.1.1Definition

17.1.2Brain Neurochemistry Explanation

17.1.3Learning Theory Explanation

17.1.4Evaluation of a Learning Theory Explanation

17.1.5Cognitive Bias

17.1.6Griffiths on Cognitive Bias

17.1.7Evaluation of Cognitive Theory (A2 only)

17.1.8End of Topic Test - Addiction 1

17.1.9Gambling Addiction & Learning Theory

17.1.10Social Influences on Addiction 1

17.1.11Social Influences on Addiction 2

17.1.12Personal Influences on Addiction

17.1.13Genetic Explanations of Addiction

17.1.14End of Topic Test - Addiction 2

17.2Treating Addiction (A2 only)

17.2.1Drug Therapy

17.2.2Behavioural Interventions

17.2.3Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

17.2.4Theory of Reasoned Action

17.2.5Theory of Planned Behaviour

17.2.6Six Stage Model of Behaviour Change

17.2.7End of Topic Test - Treating Addiction

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End of Topic Test - Sexual Relationships

Evaluation of Social Exchange Theory