11.1.17
Biological Basis of Social Cognition
Biological Basis of Social Cognition
Biological Basis of Social Cognition
Social living requires social cognition and concepts like theory of mind. These skills and capabilities have a biological basis in neuroanatomy, including mirror neurons.
Neurons
Neurons
- Neurons transmit electrical impulses around the brain and body.
- They are used to communicate information between the brain and body.
The brain
The brain
- There are four main lobes of the brain, each composed of millions of neurons:
- Occipital, parietal, frontal and temporal.
- These lobes communicate with each other.
- Certain processes, like visual perception or speech, involve multiple lobes of the brain.
Social neuroscience
Social neuroscience
- Social abilities, involving speech, communication and awareness of others, involve incredibly complex brain mechanisms.
- These abilities evolved as our intelligence and social living grew.
- Social neuroscience is the study of the connection between social psychology and neuroscience.
- In other words: the social approach and the biological approach are combined.
Mirror neurons
Mirror neurons
- Mirror neurons are cells in the brain that are activated when performing an action, like picking up a pen.
- They are also active when observing someone else do the identical action.
- Studies like Di Pellegrino et al. (1992) have been done to record the activity of mirror neurons.
Brain activity
Brain activity
- Individual neuron activity in humans is difficult to record, therefore other techniques like functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) are used.
- This analyses brain activity when people are doing certain tasks, comparing different areas of the brain.
- Iacoboni et al. (1999) found that the frontal and parietal cortex are active when people both carry out and observe actions.
- Therefore, they could be possible locations of mirror neurons.
Mirror neurons and empathy
Mirror neurons and empathy
- fMRI studies of humans demonstrate that when we feel emotions like happiness or sadness, the same groups of neurons fire as when we observe these emotions in other people.
- This suggests that mirror neurons are important in the development of empathy.
Recording Mirror Neuron Activity: Di Pellegrino et al. (1992)
Recording Mirror Neuron Activity: Di Pellegrino et al. (1992)
Mirror neurons are neurons that fire when both performing an action and observing someone perform the same action. Electrodes were used to study the brain activity of macaque monkeys.
Method
Method
- The prefrontal cortex is an area of the brain believed to be involved in the planning and guidance of movement.
- It is found in the frontal lobe.
- Electrodes that record neuronal activity were inserted into individual neurons of the prefrontal cortex of macaque monkeys.
- The activity of the neurons was monitored when the monkeys reached for food.
Results
Results
- The neurons were active both when the monkey reached for food and, unexpectedly, when the monkeys watched others reach for food.
Conclusion
Conclusion
- This study was the first to provide evidence for the existence of these mirror neurons, though the exact function and purpose was unclear.
- Future studies on the mirror neurons could provide an explanation for complex social behaviour.
Evaluation
Evaluation
- Whenever animals are used in scientific studies, there is controversy.
- Ethical issues are going to be especially apparent when electrodes are being inserted into the animals’ brains.
- As this study’s purpose was not to examine mirror neurons, the findings were limited.
Mirror Neurons and Intentions: Fogassi et al. (2005)
Mirror Neurons and Intentions: Fogassi et al. (2005)
Mirror neurons fire when both performing and observing someone perform, an action. These may be important in understanding the behaviour and actions of other people.
Fogassi et al. (2005)
Fogassi et al. (2005)
- Mirror neurons fire when both performing an action and when observing someone perform this action.
- These may be important in understanding the behaviour and actions of other people.
- Fogassi et al. (2005) studied these neurons in macaque monkeys as they observed a human complete an action.
Method
Method
- Humans completed two distinct actions while being observed by macaque monkeys:
- Picking up an apple and eating it
- Picking up an apple and placing it in a cup.
- The neuronal activity of 41 individual neurons of 2 macaque monkeys was recorded by using electrodes.
Results
Results
- Observing the two different actions (eat or place) of placing and eating resulted in two different sets of neurons responding. - Additionally, a certain set of neurons fired after the apple was picked up but before the second action was completed (eat or place).
Conclusion
Conclusion
- The set of neurons that fired before the second action was completed suggest that mirror neurons are important to help us understand the intentions of other actions.
- The mirror neurons can also be used to predict others behaviours.
Evaluation
Evaluation
- Ethical issues are raised whenever animals are used in scientific studies.
- Another critique is that the study has low ecological validity as it was carried out in a laboratory setting.
- A final criticism is that as the study was conducted on monkeys, it is difficult to generalise the results to humans.
- Mirror neurons in humans may respond in different ways.
1Social Influence
1.1Social Influence
1.1.1Conformity
1.1.2Asch (1951)
1.1.3Sherif (1935)
1.1.4Conformity to Social Roles
1.1.5BBC Prison Study
1.1.6End of Topic Test - Conformity
1.1.7Obedience
1.1.8Analysing Milgram's Experiment
1.1.9Agentic State & Legitimate Authority
1.1.10Variables of Obedience
1.1.11Resistance to Social Influence
1.1.12Minority Influence & Social Change
1.1.13Minority Influence & Social Impact Theory
1.1.14End of Topic Test - Social Influences
1.1.15Exam-Style Question - Conformity
1.1.16Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Social Influence
2Memory
2.1Memory
2.1.1Multi-Store Model of Memory
2.1.2Short-Term vs Long-Term Memory
2.1.3Long-Term Memory
2.1.4Support for the Multi-Store Model of Memory
2.1.5Duration Studies
2.1.6Capacity Studies
2.1.7Coding Studies
2.1.8The Working Memory Model
2.1.9The Working Memory Model 2
2.1.10Support for the Working Memory Model
2.1.11Explanations for Forgetting
2.1.12Studies on Interference
2.1.13Cue-Dependent Forgetting
2.1.14Eye Witness Testimony - Loftus & Palmer
2.1.15Eye Witness Testimony Loftus
2.1.16Eyewitness Testimony - Post-Event Discussion
2.1.17Eyewitness Testimony - Age & Misleading Questions
2.1.18Cognitive Interview
2.1.19Cognitive Interview - Geiselman & Fisher
2.1.20End of Topic Test - Memory
2.1.21Exam-Style Question - Memory
2.1.22A-A* (AO3/4) - Memory
3Attachment
3.1Attachment
3.1.1Caregiver-Infant Interaction
3.1.2Condon & Sander (1974)
3.1.3Schaffer & Emerson (1964)
3.1.4Multiple Attachments
3.1.5Studies on the Role of the Father
3.1.6Animal Studies of Attachment
3.1.7Explanations of Attachment
3.1.8Attachment Types - Strange Situation
3.1.9Cultural Differences in Attachment
3.1.10Disruption of Attachment
3.1.11Disruption of Attachment - Privation
3.1.12Overcoming the Effects of Disruption
3.1.13The Effects of Institutionalisation
3.1.14Early Attachment
3.1.15Critical Period of Attachment
3.1.16End of Topic Test - Attachment
3.1.17Exam-Style Question - Attachment
3.1.18Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Attachment
4Psychopathology
4.1Psychopathology
4.1.1Definitions of Abnormality
4.1.2Definitions of Abnormality 2
4.1.3Phobias, Depression & OCD
4.1.4Phobias: Behavioural Approach
4.1.5Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias
4.1.6Depression: Cognitive Approach
4.1.7OCD: Biological Approach
4.1.8Evidence for the Biological Approach
4.1.9End of Topic Test - Psychopathy
4.1.10Exam-Style Question - Phobias
4.1.11Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology
5Approaches in Psychology
5.1Approaches in Psychology
5.1.1Psychology as a Science
5.1.2Origins of Psychology
5.1.3Reductionism & Problems with Introspection
5.1.4The Behaviourist Approach - Classical Conditioning
5.1.5Pavlov's Experiment
5.1.6Little Albert Study
5.1.7The Behaviourist Approach - Operant Conditioning
5.1.8Social Learning Theory
5.1.9The Cognitive Approach 1
5.1.10The Cognitive Approach 2
5.1.11The Biological Approach
5.1.12Gottesman (1991) - Twin Studies
5.1.13Brain Scanning
5.1.14Structure of Personality & Little Hans
5.1.15The Psychodynamic Approach (A2 only)
5.1.16Humanistic Psychology (A2 only)
5.1.17Aronoff (1957) (A2 Only)
5.1.18Rogers' Client-Centred Therapy (A2 only)
5.1.19End of Topic Test - Approaches in Psychology
5.1.20Exam-Style Question - Approaches in Psychology
5.2Comparison of Approaches (A2 only)
6Biopsychology
6.1Biopsychology
6.1.1Nervous System Divisions
6.1.2Neuron Structure & Function
6.1.3Neurotransmitters
6.1.4Endocrine System Function
6.1.5Fight or Flight Response
6.1.6The Brain (A2 only)
6.1.7Localisation of Brain Function (A2 only)
6.1.8Studying the Brain (A2 only)
6.1.9CIMT (A2 Only) & Postmortem Examinations
6.1.10Biological Rhythms (A2 only)
6.1.11Studies on Biological Rhythms (A2 Only)
6.1.12End of Topic Test - Biopsychology
6.1.13Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Biopsychology
7Research Methods
7.1Research Methods
7.2Scientific Processes
7.2.1Aims, Hypotheses & Sampling
7.2.2Pilot Studies & Design
7.2.3Questionnaires
7.2.4Variables & Control
7.2.5Demand Characteristics & Investigator Effects
7.2.6Ethics
7.2.7Limitations of Ethical Guidelines
7.2.8Consent & Protection from Harm Studies
7.2.9Peer Review & The Economy
7.2.10Validity (A2 only)
7.2.11Reliability (A2 only)
7.2.12Features of Science (A2 only)
7.2.13Paradigms & Falsifiability (A2 only)
7.2.14Scientific Report (A2 only)
7.2.15Scientific Report 2 (A2 only)
7.2.16End of Topic Test - Scientific Processes
7.3Data Handling & Analysis
7.3.1Types of Data
7.3.2Descriptive Statistics
7.3.3Correlation
7.3.4Evaluation of Descriptive Statistics
7.3.5Presentation & Display of Data
7.3.6Levels of Measurement (A2 only)
7.3.7Content Analysis (A2 only)
7.3.8Case Studies (A2 only)
7.3.9Thematic Analysis (A2 only)
7.3.10End of Topic Test - Data Handling & Analysis
8Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
8.1Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
8.1.1Culture Bias
8.1.2Sub-Culture Bias
8.1.3Gender Bias
8.1.4Ethnocentrism
8.1.5Cross Cultural Research
8.1.6Free Will & Determinism
8.1.7Comparison of Free Will & Determinism
8.1.8Reductionism & Holism
8.1.9Reductionist & Holistic Approaches
8.1.10Nature-Nurture Debate
8.1.11Interactionist Approach
8.1.12Nature-Nurture Methods
8.1.13Nature-Nurture Approaches
8.1.14Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches
8.1.15Socially Sensitive Research
8.1.16End of Topic Test - Issues and Debates
9Option 1: Relationships (A2 only)
9.1Relationships: Sexual Relationships (A2 only)
9.1.1Sexual Selection & Human Reproductive Behaviour
9.1.2Intersexual & Intrasexual Selection
9.1.3Evaluation of Sexual Selection Behaviour
9.1.4Factors Affecting Attraction: Self-Disclosure
9.1.5Evaluation of Self-Disclosure Theory
9.1.6Self Disclosure in Computer Communication
9.1.7Factors Affecting Attraction: Physical Attributes
9.1.8Matching Hypothesis Studies
9.1.9Factors Affecting Physical Attraction
9.1.10Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 1
9.1.11Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 2
9.1.12Evaluation of Filter Theory
9.1.13End of Topic Test - Sexual Relationships
9.2Relationships: Romantic Relationships (A2 only)
9.2.1Social Exchange Theory
9.2.2Evaluation of Social Exchange Theory
9.2.3Equity Theory
9.2.4Evaluation of Equity Theory
9.2.5Rusbult’s Investment Model
9.2.6Evaluation of Rusbult's Investment Model
9.2.7Relationship Breakdown
9.2.8Studies on Relationship Breakdown
9.2.9Evaluation of Relationship Breakdown
9.2.10End of Topic Test - Romantic relationships
9.3Relationships: Virtual & Parasocial (A2 only)
10Option 1: Gender (A2 only)
10.1Gender (A2 only)
10.1.1Sex, Gender & Androgyny
10.1.2Gender Identity Disorder
10.1.3Biological & Social Explanations of GID
10.1.4Biological Influences on Gender
10.1.5Effects of Hormones on Gender
10.1.6End of Topic Test - Gender 1
10.1.7Kohlberg’s Theory of Gender Constancy
10.1.8Evaluation of Kohlberg's Theory
10.1.9Gender Schema Theory
10.1.10Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 1
10.1.11Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 2
10.1.12Social Approach to Gender Development
10.1.13Criticisms of Social Theory
10.1.14End of Topic Test - Gender 2
10.1.15Media Influence on Gender Development
10.1.16Cross Cultural Research
10.1.17Childcare & Gender Roles
10.1.18End of Topic Test - Gender 3
11Option 1: Cognition & Development (A2 only)
11.1Cognition & Development (A2 only)
11.1.1Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 1
11.1.2Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 2
11.1.3Schema Accommodation Assimilation & Equilibration
11.1.4Piaget & Inhelder’s Three Mountains Task (1956)
11.1.5Conservation & Class Inclusion
11.1.6Evaluation of Piaget
11.1.7End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 1
11.1.8Vygotsky
11.1.9Evaluation of Vygotsky
11.1.10Baillargeon
11.1.11Baillargeon's studies
11.1.12Evaluation of Baillargeon
11.1.13End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 2
11.1.14Sense of Self & Theory of Mind
11.1.15Baron-Cohen Studies
11.1.16Selman’s Five Levels of Perspective Taking
11.1.17Biological Basis of Social Cognition
11.1.18Evaluation of Biological Basis of Social Cognition
11.1.19Important Issues in Social Neuroscience
11.1.20End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 3
11.1.21Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Cognition & Development
12Option 2: Schizophrenia (A2 only)
12.1Schizophrenia: Diagnosis (A2 only)
12.2Schizophrenia: Treatment (A2 only)
12.2.1Family-Based Psychological Explanations
12.2.2Evaluation of Family-Based Explanations
12.2.3Cognitive Explanations
12.2.4Drug Therapies
12.2.5Evaluation of Drug Therapies
12.2.6Biological Explanations for Schizophrenia
12.2.7Dopamine Hypothesis
12.2.8End of Topic Test - Schizoprenia Treatment 1
12.2.9Psychological Therapies 1
12.2.10Psychological Therapies 2
12.2.11Evaluation of Psychological Therapies
12.2.12Interactionist Approach - Diathesis-Stress Model
12.2.13Interactionist Approach - Triggers & Treatment
12.2.14Evaluation of the Interactionist Approach
12.2.15End of Topic Test - Scizophrenia Treatments 2
13Option 2: Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
13.1Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
13.1.1Explanations for Food Preferences
13.1.2Birch et al (1987) & Lowe et al (2004)
13.1.3Control of Eating Behaviours
13.1.4Control of Eating Behaviour: Leptin
13.1.5Biological Explanations for Anorexia Nervosa
13.1.6Psychological Explanations: Family Systems Theory
13.1.7Psychological Explanations: Social Learning Theory
13.1.8Psychological Explanations: Cognitive Theory
13.1.9Biological Explanations for Obesity
13.1.10Biological Explanations: Studies
13.1.11Psychological Explanations for Obesity
13.1.12Psychological Explanations: Studies
13.1.13End of Topic Test - Eating Behaviour
14Option 2: Stress (A2 only)
14.1Stress (A2 only)
14.1.1Physiology of Stress
14.1.2Role of Stress in Illness
14.1.3Role of Stress in Illness: Studies
14.1.4Social Readjustment Rating Scales
14.1.5Hassles & Uplifts Scales
14.1.6Stress, Workload & Control
14.1.7Stress Level Studies
14.1.8End of Topic Test - Stress 1
14.1.9Physiological Measures of Stress
14.1.10Individual Differences
14.1.11Stress & Gender
14.1.12Drug Therapy & Biofeedback for Stress
14.1.13Stress Inoculation Therapy
14.1.14Social Support & Stress
14.1.15End of Topic Test - Stress 2
15Option 3: Aggression (A2 only)
15.1Aggression: Physiological (A2 only)
15.1.1Neural Mechanisms
15.1.2Serotonin
15.1.3Hormonal Mechanisms
15.1.4Genetic Factors
15.1.5Genetic Factors 2
15.1.6End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 1
15.1.7Ethological Explanation
15.1.8Innate Releasing Mechanisms & Fixed Action Pattern
15.1.9Evolutionary Explanations
15.1.10Buss et al (1992) - Sex Differences in Jealousy
15.1.11Evaluation of Evolutionary Explanations
15.1.12End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 2
15.2Aggression: Social Psychological (A2 only)
15.2.1Social Psychological Explanation
15.2.2Buss (1963) - Frustration/Aggression
15.2.3Social Psychological Explanation 2
15.2.4Social Learning Theory (SLT) 1
15.2.5Social Learning Theory (SLT) 2
15.2.6Limitations of Social Learning Theory (SLT)
15.2.7Deindividuation
15.2.8Deindividuation 2
15.2.9Deindividuation - Diener et al (1976)
15.2.10End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology
15.2.11Institutional Aggression: Prisons
15.2.12Evaluation of Dispositional & Situational
15.2.13Influence of Computer Games
15.2.14Influence of Television
15.2.15Evaluation of Studies on Media
15.2.16Desensitisation & Disinhibition
15.2.17Cognitive Priming
15.2.18End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology
16Option 3: Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
16.1Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
16.1.1Defining Crime
16.1.2Measuring Crime
16.1.3Offender Profiling
16.1.4Evaluation of Offender Profiling
16.1.5John Duffy Case Study
16.1.6Biological Explanations 1
16.1.7Biological Explanations 2
16.1.8Evaluation of the Biological Explanation
16.1.9Cognitive Explanations
16.1.10Moral Reasoning
16.1.11Psychodynamic Explanation 1
16.1.12Psychodynamic Explanation 2
16.1.13End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 1
16.1.14Differential Association Theory
16.1.15Custodial Sentencing
16.1.16Effects of Prison
16.1.17Evaluation of the Effects of Prison
16.1.18Recidivism
16.1.19Behavioural Treatments & Therapies
16.1.20Effectiveness of Behavioural Treatments
16.1.21Restorative Justice
16.1.22End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 2
17Option 3: Addiction (A2 only)
17.1Addiction (A2 only)
17.1.1Definition
17.1.2Brain Neurochemistry Explanation
17.1.3Learning Theory Explanation
17.1.4Evaluation of a Learning Theory Explanation
17.1.5Cognitive Bias
17.1.6Griffiths on Cognitive Bias
17.1.7Evaluation of Cognitive Theory (A2 only)
17.1.8End of Topic Test - Addiction 1
17.1.9Gambling Addiction & Learning Theory
17.1.10Social Influences on Addiction 1
17.1.11Social Influences on Addiction 2
17.1.12Personal Influences on Addiction
17.1.13Genetic Explanations of Addiction
17.1.14End of Topic Test - Addiction 2
Jump to other topics
1Social Influence
1.1Social Influence
1.1.1Conformity
1.1.2Asch (1951)
1.1.3Sherif (1935)
1.1.4Conformity to Social Roles
1.1.5BBC Prison Study
1.1.6End of Topic Test - Conformity
1.1.7Obedience
1.1.8Analysing Milgram's Experiment
1.1.9Agentic State & Legitimate Authority
1.1.10Variables of Obedience
1.1.11Resistance to Social Influence
1.1.12Minority Influence & Social Change
1.1.13Minority Influence & Social Impact Theory
1.1.14End of Topic Test - Social Influences
1.1.15Exam-Style Question - Conformity
1.1.16Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Social Influence
2Memory
2.1Memory
2.1.1Multi-Store Model of Memory
2.1.2Short-Term vs Long-Term Memory
2.1.3Long-Term Memory
2.1.4Support for the Multi-Store Model of Memory
2.1.5Duration Studies
2.1.6Capacity Studies
2.1.7Coding Studies
2.1.8The Working Memory Model
2.1.9The Working Memory Model 2
2.1.10Support for the Working Memory Model
2.1.11Explanations for Forgetting
2.1.12Studies on Interference
2.1.13Cue-Dependent Forgetting
2.1.14Eye Witness Testimony - Loftus & Palmer
2.1.15Eye Witness Testimony Loftus
2.1.16Eyewitness Testimony - Post-Event Discussion
2.1.17Eyewitness Testimony - Age & Misleading Questions
2.1.18Cognitive Interview
2.1.19Cognitive Interview - Geiselman & Fisher
2.1.20End of Topic Test - Memory
2.1.21Exam-Style Question - Memory
2.1.22A-A* (AO3/4) - Memory
3Attachment
3.1Attachment
3.1.1Caregiver-Infant Interaction
3.1.2Condon & Sander (1974)
3.1.3Schaffer & Emerson (1964)
3.1.4Multiple Attachments
3.1.5Studies on the Role of the Father
3.1.6Animal Studies of Attachment
3.1.7Explanations of Attachment
3.1.8Attachment Types - Strange Situation
3.1.9Cultural Differences in Attachment
3.1.10Disruption of Attachment
3.1.11Disruption of Attachment - Privation
3.1.12Overcoming the Effects of Disruption
3.1.13The Effects of Institutionalisation
3.1.14Early Attachment
3.1.15Critical Period of Attachment
3.1.16End of Topic Test - Attachment
3.1.17Exam-Style Question - Attachment
3.1.18Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Attachment
4Psychopathology
4.1Psychopathology
4.1.1Definitions of Abnormality
4.1.2Definitions of Abnormality 2
4.1.3Phobias, Depression & OCD
4.1.4Phobias: Behavioural Approach
4.1.5Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias
4.1.6Depression: Cognitive Approach
4.1.7OCD: Biological Approach
4.1.8Evidence for the Biological Approach
4.1.9End of Topic Test - Psychopathy
4.1.10Exam-Style Question - Phobias
4.1.11Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology
5Approaches in Psychology
5.1Approaches in Psychology
5.1.1Psychology as a Science
5.1.2Origins of Psychology
5.1.3Reductionism & Problems with Introspection
5.1.4The Behaviourist Approach - Classical Conditioning
5.1.5Pavlov's Experiment
5.1.6Little Albert Study
5.1.7The Behaviourist Approach - Operant Conditioning
5.1.8Social Learning Theory
5.1.9The Cognitive Approach 1
5.1.10The Cognitive Approach 2
5.1.11The Biological Approach
5.1.12Gottesman (1991) - Twin Studies
5.1.13Brain Scanning
5.1.14Structure of Personality & Little Hans
5.1.15The Psychodynamic Approach (A2 only)
5.1.16Humanistic Psychology (A2 only)
5.1.17Aronoff (1957) (A2 Only)
5.1.18Rogers' Client-Centred Therapy (A2 only)
5.1.19End of Topic Test - Approaches in Psychology
5.1.20Exam-Style Question - Approaches in Psychology
5.2Comparison of Approaches (A2 only)
6Biopsychology
6.1Biopsychology
6.1.1Nervous System Divisions
6.1.2Neuron Structure & Function
6.1.3Neurotransmitters
6.1.4Endocrine System Function
6.1.5Fight or Flight Response
6.1.6The Brain (A2 only)
6.1.7Localisation of Brain Function (A2 only)
6.1.8Studying the Brain (A2 only)
6.1.9CIMT (A2 Only) & Postmortem Examinations
6.1.10Biological Rhythms (A2 only)
6.1.11Studies on Biological Rhythms (A2 Only)
6.1.12End of Topic Test - Biopsychology
6.1.13Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Biopsychology
7Research Methods
7.1Research Methods
7.2Scientific Processes
7.2.1Aims, Hypotheses & Sampling
7.2.2Pilot Studies & Design
7.2.3Questionnaires
7.2.4Variables & Control
7.2.5Demand Characteristics & Investigator Effects
7.2.6Ethics
7.2.7Limitations of Ethical Guidelines
7.2.8Consent & Protection from Harm Studies
7.2.9Peer Review & The Economy
7.2.10Validity (A2 only)
7.2.11Reliability (A2 only)
7.2.12Features of Science (A2 only)
7.2.13Paradigms & Falsifiability (A2 only)
7.2.14Scientific Report (A2 only)
7.2.15Scientific Report 2 (A2 only)
7.2.16End of Topic Test - Scientific Processes
7.3Data Handling & Analysis
7.3.1Types of Data
7.3.2Descriptive Statistics
7.3.3Correlation
7.3.4Evaluation of Descriptive Statistics
7.3.5Presentation & Display of Data
7.3.6Levels of Measurement (A2 only)
7.3.7Content Analysis (A2 only)
7.3.8Case Studies (A2 only)
7.3.9Thematic Analysis (A2 only)
7.3.10End of Topic Test - Data Handling & Analysis
8Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
8.1Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
8.1.1Culture Bias
8.1.2Sub-Culture Bias
8.1.3Gender Bias
8.1.4Ethnocentrism
8.1.5Cross Cultural Research
8.1.6Free Will & Determinism
8.1.7Comparison of Free Will & Determinism
8.1.8Reductionism & Holism
8.1.9Reductionist & Holistic Approaches
8.1.10Nature-Nurture Debate
8.1.11Interactionist Approach
8.1.12Nature-Nurture Methods
8.1.13Nature-Nurture Approaches
8.1.14Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches
8.1.15Socially Sensitive Research
8.1.16End of Topic Test - Issues and Debates
9Option 1: Relationships (A2 only)
9.1Relationships: Sexual Relationships (A2 only)
9.1.1Sexual Selection & Human Reproductive Behaviour
9.1.2Intersexual & Intrasexual Selection
9.1.3Evaluation of Sexual Selection Behaviour
9.1.4Factors Affecting Attraction: Self-Disclosure
9.1.5Evaluation of Self-Disclosure Theory
9.1.6Self Disclosure in Computer Communication
9.1.7Factors Affecting Attraction: Physical Attributes
9.1.8Matching Hypothesis Studies
9.1.9Factors Affecting Physical Attraction
9.1.10Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 1
9.1.11Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 2
9.1.12Evaluation of Filter Theory
9.1.13End of Topic Test - Sexual Relationships
9.2Relationships: Romantic Relationships (A2 only)
9.2.1Social Exchange Theory
9.2.2Evaluation of Social Exchange Theory
9.2.3Equity Theory
9.2.4Evaluation of Equity Theory
9.2.5Rusbult’s Investment Model
9.2.6Evaluation of Rusbult's Investment Model
9.2.7Relationship Breakdown
9.2.8Studies on Relationship Breakdown
9.2.9Evaluation of Relationship Breakdown
9.2.10End of Topic Test - Romantic relationships
9.3Relationships: Virtual & Parasocial (A2 only)
10Option 1: Gender (A2 only)
10.1Gender (A2 only)
10.1.1Sex, Gender & Androgyny
10.1.2Gender Identity Disorder
10.1.3Biological & Social Explanations of GID
10.1.4Biological Influences on Gender
10.1.5Effects of Hormones on Gender
10.1.6End of Topic Test - Gender 1
10.1.7Kohlberg’s Theory of Gender Constancy
10.1.8Evaluation of Kohlberg's Theory
10.1.9Gender Schema Theory
10.1.10Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 1
10.1.11Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 2
10.1.12Social Approach to Gender Development
10.1.13Criticisms of Social Theory
10.1.14End of Topic Test - Gender 2
10.1.15Media Influence on Gender Development
10.1.16Cross Cultural Research
10.1.17Childcare & Gender Roles
10.1.18End of Topic Test - Gender 3
11Option 1: Cognition & Development (A2 only)
11.1Cognition & Development (A2 only)
11.1.1Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 1
11.1.2Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 2
11.1.3Schema Accommodation Assimilation & Equilibration
11.1.4Piaget & Inhelder’s Three Mountains Task (1956)
11.1.5Conservation & Class Inclusion
11.1.6Evaluation of Piaget
11.1.7End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 1
11.1.8Vygotsky
11.1.9Evaluation of Vygotsky
11.1.10Baillargeon
11.1.11Baillargeon's studies
11.1.12Evaluation of Baillargeon
11.1.13End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 2
11.1.14Sense of Self & Theory of Mind
11.1.15Baron-Cohen Studies
11.1.16Selman’s Five Levels of Perspective Taking
11.1.17Biological Basis of Social Cognition
11.1.18Evaluation of Biological Basis of Social Cognition
11.1.19Important Issues in Social Neuroscience
11.1.20End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 3
11.1.21Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Cognition & Development
12Option 2: Schizophrenia (A2 only)
12.1Schizophrenia: Diagnosis (A2 only)
12.2Schizophrenia: Treatment (A2 only)
12.2.1Family-Based Psychological Explanations
12.2.2Evaluation of Family-Based Explanations
12.2.3Cognitive Explanations
12.2.4Drug Therapies
12.2.5Evaluation of Drug Therapies
12.2.6Biological Explanations for Schizophrenia
12.2.7Dopamine Hypothesis
12.2.8End of Topic Test - Schizoprenia Treatment 1
12.2.9Psychological Therapies 1
12.2.10Psychological Therapies 2
12.2.11Evaluation of Psychological Therapies
12.2.12Interactionist Approach - Diathesis-Stress Model
12.2.13Interactionist Approach - Triggers & Treatment
12.2.14Evaluation of the Interactionist Approach
12.2.15End of Topic Test - Scizophrenia Treatments 2
13Option 2: Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
13.1Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
13.1.1Explanations for Food Preferences
13.1.2Birch et al (1987) & Lowe et al (2004)
13.1.3Control of Eating Behaviours
13.1.4Control of Eating Behaviour: Leptin
13.1.5Biological Explanations for Anorexia Nervosa
13.1.6Psychological Explanations: Family Systems Theory
13.1.7Psychological Explanations: Social Learning Theory
13.1.8Psychological Explanations: Cognitive Theory
13.1.9Biological Explanations for Obesity
13.1.10Biological Explanations: Studies
13.1.11Psychological Explanations for Obesity
13.1.12Psychological Explanations: Studies
13.1.13End of Topic Test - Eating Behaviour
14Option 2: Stress (A2 only)
14.1Stress (A2 only)
14.1.1Physiology of Stress
14.1.2Role of Stress in Illness
14.1.3Role of Stress in Illness: Studies
14.1.4Social Readjustment Rating Scales
14.1.5Hassles & Uplifts Scales
14.1.6Stress, Workload & Control
14.1.7Stress Level Studies
14.1.8End of Topic Test - Stress 1
14.1.9Physiological Measures of Stress
14.1.10Individual Differences
14.1.11Stress & Gender
14.1.12Drug Therapy & Biofeedback for Stress
14.1.13Stress Inoculation Therapy
14.1.14Social Support & Stress
14.1.15End of Topic Test - Stress 2
15Option 3: Aggression (A2 only)
15.1Aggression: Physiological (A2 only)
15.1.1Neural Mechanisms
15.1.2Serotonin
15.1.3Hormonal Mechanisms
15.1.4Genetic Factors
15.1.5Genetic Factors 2
15.1.6End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 1
15.1.7Ethological Explanation
15.1.8Innate Releasing Mechanisms & Fixed Action Pattern
15.1.9Evolutionary Explanations
15.1.10Buss et al (1992) - Sex Differences in Jealousy
15.1.11Evaluation of Evolutionary Explanations
15.1.12End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 2
15.2Aggression: Social Psychological (A2 only)
15.2.1Social Psychological Explanation
15.2.2Buss (1963) - Frustration/Aggression
15.2.3Social Psychological Explanation 2
15.2.4Social Learning Theory (SLT) 1
15.2.5Social Learning Theory (SLT) 2
15.2.6Limitations of Social Learning Theory (SLT)
15.2.7Deindividuation
15.2.8Deindividuation 2
15.2.9Deindividuation - Diener et al (1976)
15.2.10End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology
15.2.11Institutional Aggression: Prisons
15.2.12Evaluation of Dispositional & Situational
15.2.13Influence of Computer Games
15.2.14Influence of Television
15.2.15Evaluation of Studies on Media
15.2.16Desensitisation & Disinhibition
15.2.17Cognitive Priming
15.2.18End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology
16Option 3: Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
16.1Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
16.1.1Defining Crime
16.1.2Measuring Crime
16.1.3Offender Profiling
16.1.4Evaluation of Offender Profiling
16.1.5John Duffy Case Study
16.1.6Biological Explanations 1
16.1.7Biological Explanations 2
16.1.8Evaluation of the Biological Explanation
16.1.9Cognitive Explanations
16.1.10Moral Reasoning
16.1.11Psychodynamic Explanation 1
16.1.12Psychodynamic Explanation 2
16.1.13End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 1
16.1.14Differential Association Theory
16.1.15Custodial Sentencing
16.1.16Effects of Prison
16.1.17Evaluation of the Effects of Prison
16.1.18Recidivism
16.1.19Behavioural Treatments & Therapies
16.1.20Effectiveness of Behavioural Treatments
16.1.21Restorative Justice
16.1.22End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 2
17Option 3: Addiction (A2 only)
17.1Addiction (A2 only)
17.1.1Definition
17.1.2Brain Neurochemistry Explanation
17.1.3Learning Theory Explanation
17.1.4Evaluation of a Learning Theory Explanation
17.1.5Cognitive Bias
17.1.6Griffiths on Cognitive Bias
17.1.7Evaluation of Cognitive Theory (A2 only)
17.1.8End of Topic Test - Addiction 1
17.1.9Gambling Addiction & Learning Theory
17.1.10Social Influences on Addiction 1
17.1.11Social Influences on Addiction 2
17.1.12Personal Influences on Addiction
17.1.13Genetic Explanations of Addiction
17.1.14End of Topic Test - Addiction 2
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