Cognitive Explanations

Eysenck’s Theory of Personality Types and Criminal Behaviour

Hans Eysenck developed three scales of personality: neuroticism-stability, extraversion-introversion, and psychoticism. He stated that criminals were more likely to be neurotic, extraverted and prone to psychoticism.

Neuroticism-stability

Eysenck initially developed two scales of personality dimensions: neuroticism-stability and extraversion-introversion.
- Neuroticism-stability:
  - Individuals at the stable end tend to be more reliable and calm.
  - Whereas, individuals found at the neurotic end of the spectrum tend to demonstrate traits like anxiousness and restlessness.

Extraversion-introversion

Extraversion-introversion:
- People who demonstrate extroverted traits tend to be outgoing, talkative, sociable, impulsive, and assertive.
- People on the introverted end tend to be reserved, quiet, and passive.

Psychoticism

Later on in the 1970s Eysenck developed a third personality dimension: psychoticism.
Psychoticism is how prone someone is to psychotic breakdown.
- A psychotic breakdown is when a person, generally for the first time, experiences psychosis.
  - Psychosis is when a person has difficulty distinguishing between reality and fantasy.
The more prone a person is to one, the more hostile, aggressive and uncaring they tend to be.

Genetics and environment

Eysenck stated that individuals are genetically predisposed to particular personality types but also believed that the environment played a role.
The combination of personality types and environment can lead to criminality.

Illustrative background for Age ?? "content

Age

Eysenck believed there are several personality traits that are predictors of criminal behaviour, psychoticism being a primary one.
He concluded that age also played a role.
He believed that extraversion was a stronger predictor of criminal behaviour in younger people.
He believed that neuroticism, on the other hand, was a strong predictor in older people.

Evaluation

Eysenck’s theory has been influential in psychology as it combines together the biological, psychological and social approaches.
A criticism of his theory would be that the criminal personality types are self-reported, which could lead to bias. Therefore his results lack reliability.

Criminal Thinking Patterns

The cognitive approach to criminology examines how criminals have different thought processes and cognitive distortions. Yochelson and Samenow (1976) attempted to determine common criminal thinking patterns.

Method:

255 male offenders were studied from a variety of different backgrounds over the course of 14 years, making it a longitudinal study.
Interviews of the offenders were conducted over the course of the 14 years.
Two groups were created based on the location of the offenders.

Participant groups:

The first group was from a hospital that was for ‘secure treatment’.
- The offenders here were found not guilty due to their mental illness.
The second group was made up of offenders from a ‘normal’ prison population.

Results:

Of the original 255 participants, only 30 finished the study.
52 thinking patterns were found to be common across all of the criminal participants.
These included three types of thinking patterns:
- Criminal thinking patterns, automatic thinking errors, and crime-related thinking errors.

Types of thinking patterns:

Criminal thinking patterns include feeling fear and a need for power/dominance.
Automatic thinking errors include lack of empathy, manipulativeness, lack of trust and impulsiveness.
Crime-related thinking errors include the offenders fantasising about criminal activity and behaviours

Conclusion:

There are common thinking patterns and thinking errors in criminals.
It is important to note that the researchers realised these errors may not be solely found in criminals, it is just that they are more likely to be found in criminals.

Evaluation: Criticisms

There was no control group, making the findings less valid.
The study demonstrated gender bias (beta bias) as only males were used. Therefore, the results cannot be generalised to the whole population.
Finally, it would be challenging and expensive to duplicate as it was a 14-year longitudinal study.

Evaluation: Strengths

It demonstrates ecological validity as it was conducted with actual prisoners.

Cognitive Distortions in Criminals

Cognitive distortions are irrational thought patterns that give people a distorted view of reality. Two studies (Gibbs et al, 1995; Liau et al, 1998) examined these distortions in criminals.

Warped reality

Cognitive distortions, or irrational thought patterns, can warp a person’s view of reality and lead the person to behave in different ways.
In other words, cognitive distortions can lead to criminal behaviour.

Gibbs et al. (1995)

Gibbs et al. (1995) identified four cognitive distortions that were correlated to criminal behaviour.
- Self-centred:
  - Only concerned about themselves and not others.
- Minimisation:
  - This is when they minimise the significance of their criminal behaviour.

Four cognitive distortions cont.

Blame:
- Blaming others for their problems.
Hostile attribution bias:
- The offenders believe that other people are ‘out to get them’ and other people have hostile/malicious intentions.

Liau et al. (1998)

Another study by Liau et al. (1998) compared cognitive distortions between 52 male criminal delinquents and a control group.
They found that cognitive distortions were higher amongst the delinquents.

Limitations

There is a correlation between cognitive distortions and criminal behaviour, however, causality has not been established.
It could be that cognitive distortions cause criminal behaviour or that criminal behaviour causes cognitive distortions.
Further studies would have to be done to determine causality.

1Social Influence

1.1Social Influence

1.1.1Conformity

1.1.2Asch (1951)

1.1.3Sherif (1935)

1.1.4Conformity to Social Roles

1.1.5BBC Prison Study

1.1.6End of Topic Test - Conformity

1.1.7Obedience

1.1.8Analysing Milgram's Experiment

1.1.9Agentic State & Legitimate Authority

1.1.10Variables of Obedience

1.1.11Resistance to Social Influence

1.1.12Minority Influence & Social Change

1.1.13Minority Influence & Social Impact Theory

1.1.14End of Topic Test - Social Influences

1.1.15Exam-Style Question - Conformity

1.1.16Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Social Influence

2Memory

3Attachment

3.1Attachment

3.1.1Caregiver-Infant Interaction

3.1.2Condon & Sander (1974)

3.1.3Schaffer & Emerson (1964)

3.1.4Multiple Attachments

3.1.5Studies on the Role of the Father

3.1.6Animal Studies of Attachment

3.1.7Explanations of Attachment

3.1.8Attachment Types - Strange Situation

3.1.9Cultural Differences in Attachment

3.1.10Disruption of Attachment

3.1.11Disruption of Attachment - Privation

3.1.12Overcoming the Effects of Disruption

3.1.13The Effects of Institutionalisation

3.1.14Early Attachment

3.1.15Critical Period of Attachment

3.1.16End of Topic Test - Attachment

3.1.17Exam-Style Question - Attachment

3.1.18Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Attachment

4Psychopathology

4.1Psychopathology

4.1.1Definitions of Abnormality

4.1.2Definitions of Abnormality 2

4.1.3Phobias, Depression & OCD

4.1.4Phobias: Behavioural Approach

4.1.5Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias

4.1.6Depression: Cognitive Approach

4.1.7OCD: Biological Approach

4.1.8Evidence for the Biological Approach

4.1.9End of Topic Test - Psychopathy

4.1.10Exam-Style Question - Phobias

4.1.11Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology

5Approaches in Psychology

5.1Approaches in Psychology

5.2Comparison of Approaches (A2 only)

5.2.1Psychodynamic Approach

5.2.2Cognitive Approach

5.2.3Biological Approach

5.2.4Behavioural Approach

5.2.5End of Topic Test - Comparison of Approaches

6Biopsychology

6.1Biopsychology

6.1.1Nervous System Divisions

6.1.2Neuron Structure & Function

6.1.3Neurotransmitters

6.1.4Endocrine System Function

6.1.5Fight or Flight Response

6.1.6The Brain (A2 only)

6.1.7Localisation of Brain Function (A2 only)

6.1.8Studying the Brain (A2 only)

6.1.9CIMT (A2 Only) & Postmortem Examinations

6.1.10Biological Rhythms (A2 only)

6.1.11Studies on Biological Rhythms (A2 Only)

6.1.12End of Topic Test - Biopsychology

6.1.13Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Biopsychology

7Research Methods

7.1Research Methods

7.1.1Experimental Method

7.1.2Observational Techniques

7.1.3Covert, Overt & Controlled Observation

7.1.4Self-Report Techniques

7.1.5Correlations

7.1.6Exam-Style Question - Research Methods

7.1.7End of Topic Test - Research Methods

7.2Scientific Processes

7.2.1Aims, Hypotheses & Sampling

7.2.2Pilot Studies & Design

7.2.3Questionnaires

7.2.4Variables & Control

7.2.5Demand Characteristics & Investigator Effects

7.2.6Ethics

7.2.7Limitations of Ethical Guidelines

7.2.8Consent & Protection from Harm Studies

7.2.9Peer Review & The Economy

7.2.10Validity (A2 only)

7.2.11Reliability (A2 only)

7.2.12Features of Science (A2 only)

7.2.13Paradigms & Falsifiability (A2 only)

7.2.14Scientific Report (A2 only)

7.2.15Scientific Report 2 (A2 only)

7.2.16End of Topic Test - Scientific Processes

7.3Data Handling & Analysis

7.3.1Types of Data

7.3.2Descriptive Statistics

7.3.3Correlation

7.3.4Evaluation of Descriptive Statistics

7.3.5Presentation & Display of Data

7.3.6Levels of Measurement (A2 only)

7.3.7Content Analysis (A2 only)

7.3.8Case Studies (A2 only)

7.3.9Thematic Analysis (A2 only)

7.3.10End of Topic Test - Data Handling & Analysis

7.4Inferential Testing

7.4.1Introduction to Inferential Testing

7.4.2Sign Test

7.4.3Piaget Conservation Experiment

7.4.4Non-Parametric Tests

8Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)

8.1Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)

8.1.1Culture Bias

8.1.2Sub-Culture Bias

8.1.3Gender Bias

8.1.4Ethnocentrism

8.1.5Cross Cultural Research

8.1.6Free Will & Determinism

8.1.7Comparison of Free Will & Determinism

8.1.8Reductionism & Holism

8.1.9Reductionist & Holistic Approaches

8.1.10Nature-Nurture Debate

8.1.11Interactionist Approach

8.1.12Nature-Nurture Methods

8.1.13Nature-Nurture Approaches

8.1.14Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches

8.1.15Socially Sensitive Research

8.1.16End of Topic Test - Issues and Debates

9Option 1: Relationships (A2 only)

9.1Relationships: Sexual Relationships (A2 only)

9.1.1Sexual Selection & Human Reproductive Behaviour

9.1.2Intersexual & Intrasexual Selection

9.1.3Evaluation of Sexual Selection Behaviour

9.1.4Factors Affecting Attraction: Self-Disclosure

9.1.5Evaluation of Self-Disclosure Theory

9.1.6Self Disclosure in Computer Communication

9.1.7Factors Affecting Attraction: Physical Attributes

9.1.8Matching Hypothesis Studies

9.1.9Factors Affecting Physical Attraction

9.1.10Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 1

9.1.11Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 2

9.1.12Evaluation of Filter Theory

9.1.13End of Topic Test - Sexual Relationships

9.2Relationships: Romantic Relationships (A2 only)

9.2.1Social Exchange Theory

9.2.2Evaluation of Social Exchange Theory

9.2.3Equity Theory

9.2.4Evaluation of Equity Theory

9.2.5Rusbult’s Investment Model

9.2.6Evaluation of Rusbult's Investment Model

9.2.7Relationship Breakdown

9.2.8Studies on Relationship Breakdown

9.2.9Evaluation of Relationship Breakdown

9.2.10End of Topic Test - Romantic relationships

9.3Relationships: Virtual & Parasocial (A2 only)

9.3.1Virtual Relationships in Social Media

9.3.2Evaluation of Reduced Cues & Hyperpersonal

9.3.3Parasocial Relationships

9.3.4Attachment Theory & Parasocial Relationships

9.3.5Evaluation of Parasocial Relationship Theories

9.3.6End of Topic Test - Virtual & Parasocial Realtions

10Option 1: Gender (A2 only)

10.1Gender (A2 only)

10.1.1Sex, Gender & Androgyny

10.1.2Gender Identity Disorder

10.1.3Biological & Social Explanations of GID

10.1.4Biological Influences on Gender

10.1.5Effects of Hormones on Gender

10.1.6End of Topic Test - Gender 1

10.1.7Kohlberg’s Theory of Gender Constancy

10.1.8Evaluation of Kohlberg's Theory

10.1.9Gender Schema Theory

10.1.10Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 1

10.1.11Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 2

10.1.12Social Approach to Gender Development

10.1.13Criticisms of Social Theory

10.1.14End of Topic Test - Gender 2

10.1.15Media Influence on Gender Development

10.1.16Cross Cultural Research

10.1.17Childcare & Gender Roles

10.1.18End of Topic Test - Gender 3

11Option 1: Cognition & Development (A2 only)

11.1Cognition & Development (A2 only)

11.1.1Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 1

11.1.2Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 2

11.1.3Schema Accommodation Assimilation & Equilibration

11.1.4Piaget & Inhelder’s Three Mountains Task (1956)

11.1.5Conservation & Class Inclusion

11.1.6Evaluation of Piaget

11.1.7End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 1

11.1.8Vygotsky

11.1.9Evaluation of Vygotsky

11.1.10Baillargeon

11.1.11Baillargeon's studies

11.1.12Evaluation of Baillargeon

11.1.13End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 2

11.1.14Sense of Self & Theory of Mind

11.1.15Baron-Cohen Studies

11.1.16Selman’s Five Levels of Perspective Taking

11.1.17Biological Basis of Social Cognition

11.1.18Evaluation of Biological Basis of Social Cognition

11.1.19Important Issues in Social Neuroscience

11.1.20End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 3

11.1.21Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Cognition & Development

12Option 2: Schizophrenia (A2 only)

12.1Schizophrenia: Diagnosis (A2 only)

12.1.1Classification & Diagnosis

12.1.2Reliability & Validity of Diagnosis

12.1.3Gender & Cultural Bias

12.1.4Pinto (2017) & Copeland (1971)

12.1.5End of Topic Test - Scizophrenia Diagnosis

12.2Schizophrenia: Treatment (A2 only)

12.2.1Family-Based Psychological Explanations

12.2.2Evaluation of Family-Based Explanations

12.2.3Cognitive Explanations

12.2.4Drug Therapies

12.2.5Evaluation of Drug Therapies

12.2.6Biological Explanations for Schizophrenia

12.2.7Dopamine Hypothesis

12.2.8End of Topic Test - Schizoprenia Treatment 1

12.2.9Psychological Therapies 1

12.2.10Psychological Therapies 2

12.2.11Evaluation of Psychological Therapies

12.2.12Interactionist Approach - Diathesis-Stress Model

12.2.13Interactionist Approach - Triggers & Treatment

12.2.14Evaluation of the Interactionist Approach

12.2.15End of Topic Test - Scizophrenia Treatments 2

13Option 2: Eating Behaviour (A2 only)

13.1Eating Behaviour (A2 only)

13.1.1Explanations for Food Preferences

13.1.2Birch et al (1987) & Lowe et al (2004)

13.1.3Control of Eating Behaviours

13.1.4Control of Eating Behaviour: Leptin

13.1.5Biological Explanations for Anorexia Nervosa

13.1.6Psychological Explanations: Family Systems Theory

13.1.7Psychological Explanations: Social Learning Theory

13.1.8Psychological Explanations: Cognitive Theory

13.1.9Biological Explanations for Obesity

13.1.10Biological Explanations: Studies

13.1.11Psychological Explanations for Obesity

13.1.12Psychological Explanations: Studies

13.1.13End of Topic Test - Eating Behaviour

14Option 2: Stress (A2 only)

14.1Stress (A2 only)

14.1.1Physiology of Stress

14.1.2Role of Stress in Illness

14.1.3Role of Stress in Illness: Studies

14.1.4Social Readjustment Rating Scales

14.1.5Hassles & Uplifts Scales

14.1.6Stress, Workload & Control

14.1.7Stress Level Studies

14.1.8End of Topic Test - Stress 1

14.1.9Physiological Measures of Stress

14.1.10Individual Differences

14.1.11Stress & Gender

14.1.12Drug Therapy & Biofeedback for Stress

14.1.13Stress Inoculation Therapy

14.1.14Social Support & Stress

14.1.15End of Topic Test - Stress 2

15Option 3: Aggression (A2 only)

15.1Aggression: Physiological (A2 only)

15.1.1Neural Mechanisms

15.1.2Serotonin

15.1.3Hormonal Mechanisms

15.1.4Genetic Factors

15.1.5Genetic Factors 2

15.1.6End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 1

15.1.7Ethological Explanation

15.1.8Innate Releasing Mechanisms & Fixed Action Pattern

15.1.9Evolutionary Explanations

15.1.10Buss et al (1992) - Sex Differences in Jealousy

15.1.11Evaluation of Evolutionary Explanations

15.1.12End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 2

15.2Aggression: Social Psychological (A2 only)

15.2.1Social Psychological Explanation

15.2.2Buss (1963) - Frustration/Aggression

15.2.3Social Psychological Explanation 2

15.2.4Social Learning Theory (SLT) 1

15.2.5Social Learning Theory (SLT) 2

15.2.6Limitations of Social Learning Theory (SLT)

15.2.7Deindividuation

15.2.8Deindividuation 2

15.2.9Deindividuation - Diener et al (1976)

15.2.10End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology

15.2.11Institutional Aggression: Prisons

15.2.12Evaluation of Dispositional & Situational

15.2.13Influence of Computer Games

15.2.14Influence of Television

15.2.15Evaluation of Studies on Media

15.2.16Desensitisation & Disinhibition

15.2.17Cognitive Priming

15.2.18End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology

16Option 3: Forensic Psychology (A2 only)

17Option 3: Addiction (A2 only)

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