2.1.18
Cognitive Interview
Cognitive Interview
Cognitive Interview
The cognitive interview was developed to allow witnesses to access memories in a number of ways to increase the accuracy of recall of a stressful event.
Cognitive interview (CI)
Cognitive interview (CI)
- The cognitive interview (CI) is a technique developed by Fisher and Geiselman (1992) and is based on Tulving’s (1974) theory that there are several retrieval paths to each memory.
- This means memory not available through one pathway may be available through another.
Stages of CI
Stages of CI
- The original form of the cognitive interview consisted of three components:
- Change the narrative order - recall the event in different chronological orders. For example, from the end of the event to the beginning or from a half way point to the end.
- Change of perspective - recalling the event from the perspective of other people present. For example, from the perspective of the perpetrator.
- Mental reinstatement of the context - recalling not only the environmental context, but also the emotional aspects. For example, the weather on the day of the event and how the person was feeling.
Implications of CI
Implications of CI
- Interviewees are encouraged to recall all information, no matter how irrelevant or trivial they might think it is or how confident they feel about it.
- The change of narrative order and the change of perspective components are used to reduce witnesses’ use of prior knowledge expectations as well as the triggering of schema that could encourage the use of stereotyping (so contaminating the memory).
Cognitive Interview - Evidence
Cognitive Interview - Evidence
The cognitive interview was developed to allow witnesses to access memories in a number of ways to increase the accuracy of recall of a stressful event.
Cognitive interview (CI)
Cognitive interview (CI)
- The cognitive interview (CI) is a technique developed by Fisher and Geiselman (1992) and is based on Tulving’s (1974) theory that there are several retrieval paths to each memory.
- This means memory not available through one pathway may be available through another.
Stages of CI
Stages of CI
- The original form of the cognitive interview consisted of three components:
- Change the narrative order - recall the event in different chronological orders. For example, from the end of the event to the beginning or from a half way point to the end.
- Change of perspective - recalling the event from the perspective of other people present. For example, from the perspective of the perpetrator.
- Mental reinstatement of the context - recalling not only the environmental context, but also the emotional aspects. For example, the weather on the day of the event and how the person was feeling.
Implications of CI
Implications of CI
- Interviewees are encouraged to recall all information, no matter how irrelevant or trivial they might think it is or how confident they feel about it.
- The change the narrative order and change perspective components are used to reduce witnesses’ use of prior knowledge expectations as well as the triggering of schema that could encourage the use of stereotyping (so contaminating the memory).
Research findings
Research findings
- Geiselman et al. (1985) found that the CI procedure produced more accurate and detailed memories than the standard police interview, including those conducted under hypnosis, suggesting that the CI can be effective.
- Geiselman and Fisher (1997) found increased effectiveness of the CI when it was used within a short time following the event as opposed to a longer time delay.
Meta-analysis
Meta-analysis
- Kohnken et al. (1999) carried out a meta-analysis of fifty-five studies comparing the CI to the standard police interview and found:
- CI resulted in both more accurate detail and more inaccurate detail.
- No differences in terms of the age of the witness.
- Recall was enhanced when the witness was personally involved.
- The amount of correct detail declined the longer after the event the interview was conducted.
Enhanced Cognitive Interview
Enhanced Cognitive Interview
The cognitive interview was enhanced to make sure that witnesses could lead the flow of the interview. This was to make sure the interviewer got the most accurate recall of events. The enhanced cognitive interview (ECI) has been found to be very effective.
Key features
Key features
- Features of the ECI include:
- No distractions or unnecessary interruptions or questions.
- Flow of information controlled by the witness.
- The use of open-ended questions, such as, ‘and then what happened?’
- Witness to speak slowly.
- Witness reminded not to guess and to reply with ‘don’t know’ when necessary. This reduces the risk of false memories.
- Interviewer to help reduce the anxiety of the witness.
Stages of the ECI
Stages of the ECI
- The interviewer encourages the witness to control the flow of information by asking open-ended questions on a neutral topic.
- Context reinstatement, followed by witness’s free recall of events.
- Interviewer stresses the importance of the ‘report everything’ component and of not guessing if the details are unknown.
- The interviewer moves on to asking about the information using focused memory techniques, such as mental imagery.
Modification to the ECI
Modification to the ECI
- Holliday (2003) produced a modified version for use with children. Holliday emphasised the building of trust between the interviewer and the witness, but removed the ‘change perspective’ to concerns that young children would find this too difficult.
- Shorter version of the CI and ECI are also used because of the time constraints experienced by many police forces who do not have the time to use the full version.
Research findings
Research findings
- Fisher et al. (1989) found that the ECI produced superior results in comparison to the standard police interview.
- Coker (2013) found that an ECI that placed greater emphasis on the use of focused mental imagery produced more accurate details than standard CI.
- Holliday (2003) compared the standard police interview with the MCI (designed for use with children) and found that the modified version produced more accurate results with groups of four to five and nine to ten year olds.
Evaluation of cognitive interview
Evaluation of cognitive interview
- The CI has been highly successful and has led to calls for it to be used beyond the realm of police interviews.
- But comparison between the standard police interview and the CI is difficult because the police interview techniques tend to vary, with no agreed upon format.
- Also, the CI is very time consuming and not always appropriate or possible where time constraints are a factor.
- The CI is not generally effective when witnesses are asked to identify a suspect from a photograph or from an identity parade.
1Social Influence
1.1Social Influence
1.1.1Conformity
1.1.2Asch (1951)
1.1.3Sherif (1935)
1.1.4Conformity to Social Roles
1.1.5BBC Prison Study
1.1.6End of Topic Test - Conformity
1.1.7Obedience
1.1.8Analysing Milgram's Experiment
1.1.9Agentic State & Legitimate Authority
1.1.10Variables of Obedience
1.1.11Resistance to Social Influence
1.1.12Minority Influence & Social Change
1.1.13Minority Influence & Social Impact Theory
1.1.14End of Topic Test - Social Influences
1.1.15Exam-Style Question - Conformity
1.1.16Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Social Influence
2Memory
2.1Memory
2.1.1Multi-Store Model of Memory
2.1.2Short-Term vs Long-Term Memory
2.1.3Long-Term Memory
2.1.4Support for the Multi-Store Model of Memory
2.1.5Duration Studies
2.1.6Capacity Studies
2.1.7Coding Studies
2.1.8The Working Memory Model
2.1.9The Working Memory Model 2
2.1.10Support for the Working Memory Model
2.1.11Explanations for Forgetting
2.1.12Studies on Interference
2.1.13Cue-Dependent Forgetting
2.1.14Eye Witness Testimony - Loftus & Palmer
2.1.15Eye Witness Testimony Loftus
2.1.16Eyewitness Testimony - Post-Event Discussion
2.1.17Eyewitness Testimony - Age & Misleading Questions
2.1.18Cognitive Interview
2.1.19Cognitive Interview - Geiselman & Fisher
2.1.20End of Topic Test - Memory
2.1.21Exam-Style Question - Memory
2.1.22A-A* (AO3/4) - Memory
3Attachment
3.1Attachment
3.1.1Caregiver-Infant Interaction
3.1.2Condon & Sander (1974)
3.1.3Schaffer & Emerson (1964)
3.1.4Multiple Attachments
3.1.5Studies on the Role of the Father
3.1.6Animal Studies of Attachment
3.1.7Explanations of Attachment
3.1.8Attachment Types - Strange Situation
3.1.9Cultural Differences in Attachment
3.1.10Disruption of Attachment
3.1.11Disruption of Attachment - Privation
3.1.12Overcoming the Effects of Disruption
3.1.13The Effects of Institutionalisation
3.1.14Early Attachment
3.1.15Critical Period of Attachment
3.1.16End of Topic Test - Attachment
3.1.17Exam-Style Question - Attachment
3.1.18Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Attachment
4(2026 Exams) Psychopathology
4.1Psychopathology
4.1.1Abnormality
4.1.2Abnormality 2
4.1.3Phobias, Depression & OCD
4.1.4Phobias: Behavioural Approach
4.1.5Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias
4.1.6Depression: Cognitive Approach
4.1.7OCD: Biological Approach
4.1.8Evidence for the Biological Approach
4.1.9End of Topic Test - Psychopathy
4.1.10Exam-Style Question - Phobias
4.1.11Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology
4.1.12Diagnostic Misconceptions - Phobia vs Fear
4.1.13Diagnostic Misconceptions - Depression & Self-Harm
4.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Desensitisation
5Approaches in Psychology
5.1Approaches in Psychology
5.1.1Psychology as a Science
5.1.2Origins of Psychology
5.1.3Reductionism & Problems with Introspection
5.1.4The Behaviourist Approach - Classical Conditioning
5.1.5Pavlov's Experiment
5.1.6Little Albert Study
5.1.7The Behaviourist Approach - Operant Conditioning
5.1.8Social Learning Theory
5.1.9The Cognitive Approach 1
5.1.10The Cognitive Approach 2
5.1.11The Biological Approach
5.1.12Gottesman (1991) - Twin Studies
5.1.13Brain Scanning
5.1.14Structure of Personality & Little Hans
5.1.15The Psychodynamic Approach (A2 only)
5.1.16Humanistic Psychology (A2 only)
5.1.17Aronoff (1957) (A2 Only)
5.1.18Rogers' Client-Centred Therapy (A2 only)
5.1.19End of Topic Test - Approaches in Psychology
5.1.20Exam-Style Question - Approaches in Psychology
5.2Comparison of Approaches (A2 only)
6Biopsychology
6.1Biopsychology
6.1.1Nervous System Divisions
6.1.2Neuron Structure & Function
6.1.3Neurotransmitters
6.1.4Endocrine System Function
6.1.5Fight or Flight Response
6.1.6The Brain (A2 only)
6.1.7Localisation of Brain Function (A2 only)
6.1.8Studying the Brain (A2 only)
6.1.9CIMT (A2 Only) & Postmortem Examinations
6.1.10Biological Rhythms (A2 only)
6.1.11Studies on Biological Rhythms (A2 Only)
6.1.12End of Topic Test - Biopsychology
6.1.13Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Biopsychology
6.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Plasticity & Recovery
6.1.15Diagnostic Misconceptions - Endogenous Pacemakers
7(2027 Exams) Clinical Psychology & Mental Health
7.1Clinical Psychology & Mental Health
7.1.1Deviation from Social Norms
7.1.2Deviation from Social Norms 2
7.1.3Phobias, Depression & OCD
7.1.4Phobias: Behavioural Approach
7.1.5Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias
7.1.6Depression: Cognitive Approach
7.1.7OCD: Biological Approach
7.1.8Evidence for the Biological Approach
7.1.9End of Topic Test - Psychopathy
7.1.10Exam-Style Question - Phobias
7.1.11Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology
7.1.12Diagnostic Misconceptions - Phobia vs Fear
7.1.13Diagnostic Misconceptions - Depression & Self-Harm
7.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Desensitisation
8Research Methods
8.1Research Methods
8.1.1Experimental Method
8.1.2Observational Techniques
8.1.3Covert, Overt & Controlled Observation
8.1.4Self-Report Techniques
8.1.5Correlations
8.1.6Exam-Style Question - Research Methods
8.1.7End of Topic Test - Research Methods
8.1.8Diagnostic Misconceptions - Sign Test
8.1.9Diagnostic Misconceptions - Content & Thematic
8.1.10Diagnostic Misconceptions - Valid vs Reliable
8.1.11Diagnostic Misconceptions - Confounding Variable
8.2Scientific Processes
8.2.1Aims, Hypotheses & Sampling
8.2.2Pilot Studies & Design
8.2.3Questionnaires
8.2.4Variables & Control
8.2.5Demand Characteristics & Investigator Effects
8.2.6Ethics
8.2.7Limitations of Ethical Guidelines
8.2.8Consent & Protection from Harm Studies
8.2.9Peer Review & The Economy
8.2.10Validity (A2 only)
8.2.11Reliability (A2 only)
8.2.12Features of Science (A2 only)
8.2.13Paradigms & Falsifiability (A2 only)
8.2.14Scientific Report (A2 only)
8.2.15Scientific Report 2 (A2 only)
8.2.16End of Topic Test - Scientific Processes
8.3Data Handling & Analysis
8.3.1Types of Data
8.3.2Descriptive Statistics
8.3.3Correlation
8.3.4Evaluation of Descriptive Statistics
8.3.5Presentation & Display of Data
8.3.6Levels of Measurement (A2 only)
8.3.7Content Analysis (A2 only)
8.3.8Case Studies (A2 only)
8.3.9Thematic Analysis (A2 only)
8.3.10End of Topic Test - Data Handling & Analysis
9Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
9.1Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
9.1.1Culture Bias
9.1.2Sub-Culture Bias
9.1.3Gender Bias
9.1.4Ethnocentrism
9.1.5Cross Cultural Research
9.1.6Free Will & Determinism
9.1.7Comparison of Free Will & Determinism
9.1.8Reductionism & Holism
9.1.9Reductionist & Holistic Approaches
9.1.10Nature-Nurture Debate
9.1.11Interactionist Approach
9.1.12Nature-Nurture Methods
9.1.13Nature-Nurture Approaches
9.1.14Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches
9.1.15Socially Sensitive Research
9.1.16End of Topic Test - Issues and Debates
10Option 1: Relationships (A2 only)
10.1Relationships: Sexual Relationships (A2 only)
10.1.1Sexual Selection & Human Reproductive Behaviour
10.1.2Intersexual & Intrasexual Selection
10.1.3Evaluation of Sexual Selection Behaviour
10.1.4Factors Affecting Attraction: Self-Disclosure
10.1.5Evaluation of Self-Disclosure Theory
10.1.6Self Disclosure in Computer Communication
10.1.7Factors Affecting Attraction: Physical Attributes
10.1.8Matching Hypothesis Studies
10.1.9Factors Affecting Physical Attraction
10.1.10Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 1
10.1.11Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 2
10.1.12Evaluation of Filter Theory
10.1.13End of Topic Test - Sexual Relationships
10.2Relationships: Romantic Relationships (A2 only)
10.2.1Social Exchange Theory
10.2.2Evaluation of Social Exchange Theory
10.2.3Equity Theory
10.2.4Evaluation of Equity Theory
10.2.5Rusbult’s Investment Model
10.2.6Evaluation of Rusbult's Investment Model
10.2.7Relationship Breakdown
10.2.8Studies on Relationship Breakdown
10.2.9Evaluation of Relationship Breakdown
10.2.10End of Topic Test - Romantic relationships
10.3Relationships: Virtual & Parasocial (A2 only)
11Option 1: Gender (A2 only)
11.1Gender (A2 only)
11.1.1Sex, Gender & Androgyny
11.1.2Gender Identity Disorder
11.1.3Biological & Social Explanations of GID
11.1.4Biological Influences on Gender
11.1.5Effects of Hormones on Gender
11.1.6End of Topic Test - Gender 1
11.1.7Kohlberg’s Theory of Gender Constancy
11.1.8Evaluation of Kohlberg's Theory
11.1.9Gender Schema Theory
11.1.10Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 1
11.1.11Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 2
11.1.12Social Approach to Gender Development
11.1.13Criticisms of Social Theory
11.1.14End of Topic Test - Gender 2
11.1.15Media Influence on Gender Development
11.1.16Cross Cultural Research
11.1.17Childcare & Gender Roles
11.1.18End of Topic Test - Gender 3
12Option 1: Cognition & Development (A2 only)
12.1Cognition & Development (A2 only)
12.1.1Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 1
12.1.2Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 2
12.1.3Schema Accommodation Assimilation & Equilibration
12.1.4Piaget & Inhelder’s Three Mountains Task (1956)
12.1.5Conservation & Class Inclusion
12.1.6Evaluation of Piaget
12.1.7End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 1
12.1.8Vygotsky
12.1.9Evaluation of Vygotsky
12.1.10Baillargeon
12.1.11Baillargeon's studies
12.1.12Evaluation of Baillargeon
12.1.13End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 2
12.1.14Sense of Self & Theory of Mind
12.1.15Baron-Cohen Studies
12.1.16Selman’s Five Levels of Perspective Taking
12.1.17Biological Basis of Social Cognition
12.1.18Evaluation of Biological Basis of Social Cognition
12.1.19Important Issues in Social Neuroscience
12.1.20End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 3
12.1.21Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Cognition & Development
13Option 2: Schizophrenia (A2 only)
13.1Schizophrenia: Diagnosis (A2 only)
13.2Schizophrenia: Treatment (A2 only)
13.2.1Family-Based Psychological Explanations
13.2.2Evaluation of Family-Based Explanations
13.2.3Cognitive Explanations
13.2.4Drug Therapies
13.2.5Evaluation of Drug Therapies
13.2.6Biological Explanations for Schizophrenia
13.2.7Dopamine Hypothesis
13.2.8End of Topic Test - Schizoprenia Treatment 1
13.2.9Psychological Therapies 1
13.2.10Psychological Therapies 2
13.2.11Evaluation of Psychological Therapies
13.2.12Interactionist Approach - Diathesis-Stress Model
13.2.13Interactionist Approach - Triggers & Treatment
13.2.14Evaluation of the Interactionist Approach
13.2.15End of Topic Test - Scizophrenia Treatments 2
13.2.16Diagnostic Misconceptions - CBT & CBTp
14Option 2: Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
14.1Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
14.1.1Explanations for Food Preferences
14.1.2Birch et al (1987) & Lowe et al (2004)
14.1.3Control of Eating Behaviours
14.1.4Control of Eating Behaviour: Leptin
14.1.5Biological Explanations for Anorexia Nervosa
14.1.6Psychological Explanations: Family Systems Theory
14.1.7Psychological Explanations: Social Learning Theory
14.1.8Psychological Explanations: Cognitive Theory
14.1.9Biological Explanations for Obesity
14.1.10Biological Explanations: Studies
14.1.11Psychological Explanations for Obesity
14.1.12Psychological Explanations: Studies
14.1.13End of Topic Test - Eating Behaviour
15Option 2: Stress (A2 only)
15.1Stress (A2 only)
15.1.1Physiology of Stress
15.1.2Role of Stress in Illness
15.1.3Role of Stress in Illness: Studies
15.1.4Social Readjustment Rating Scales
15.1.5Hassles & Uplifts Scales
15.1.6Stress, Workload & Control
15.1.7Stress Level Studies
15.1.8End of Topic Test - Stress 1
15.1.9Physiological Measures of Stress
15.1.10Individual Differences
15.1.11Stress & Gender
15.1.12Drug Therapy & Biofeedback for Stress
15.1.13Stress Inoculation Therapy
15.1.14Social Support & Stress
15.1.15End of Topic Test - Stress 2
16Option 3: Aggression (A2 only)
16.1Aggression: Physiological (A2 only)
16.1.1Neural Mechanisms
16.1.2Serotonin
16.1.3Hormonal Mechanisms
16.1.4Genetic Factors
16.1.5Genetic Factors 2
16.1.6End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 1
16.1.7Ethological Explanation
16.1.8Innate Releasing Mechanisms & Fixed Action Pattern
16.1.9Evolutionary Explanations
16.1.10Buss et al (1992) - Sex Differences in Jealousy
16.1.11Evaluation of Evolutionary Explanations
16.1.12End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 2
16.2Aggression: Social Psychological (A2 only)
16.2.1Social Psychological Explanation
16.2.2Buss (1963) - Frustration/Aggression
16.2.3Social Psychological Explanation 2
16.2.4Social Learning Theory (SLT) 1
16.2.5Social Learning Theory (SLT) 2
16.2.6Limitations of Social Learning Theory (SLT)
16.2.7Deindividuation
16.2.8Deindividuation 2
16.2.9Deindividuation - Diener et al (1976)
16.2.10End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology
16.2.11Institutional Aggression: Prisons
16.2.12Evaluation of Dispositional & Situational
16.2.13Influence of Computer Games
16.2.14Influence of Television
16.2.15Evaluation of Studies on Media
16.2.16Desensitisation & Disinhibition
16.2.17Cognitive Priming
16.2.18End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology
17Option 3: Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
17.1Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
17.1.1Defining Crime
17.1.2Measuring Crime
17.1.3Offender Profiling
17.1.4Evaluation of Offender Profiling
17.1.5John Duffy Case Study
17.1.6Biological Explanations 1
17.1.7Biological Explanations 2
17.1.8Evaluation of the Biological Explanation
17.1.9Cognitive Explanations
17.1.10Moral Reasoning
17.1.11Psychodynamic Explanation 1
17.1.12Psychodynamic Explanation 2
17.1.13End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 1
17.1.14Differential Association Theory
17.1.15Custodial Sentencing
17.1.16Effects of Prison
17.1.17Evaluation of the Effects of Prison
17.1.18Recidivism
17.1.19Behavioural Treatments & Therapies
17.1.20Effectiveness of Behavioural Treatments
17.1.21Restorative Justice
17.1.22End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 2
18Option 3: Addiction (A2 only)
18.1Addiction (A2 only)
18.1.1Definition
18.1.2Brain Neurochemistry Explanation
18.1.3Learning Theory Explanation
18.1.4Evaluation of a Learning Theory Explanation
18.1.5Cognitive Bias
18.1.6Griffiths on Cognitive Bias
18.1.7Evaluation of Cognitive Theory (A2 only)
18.1.8End of Topic Test - Addiction 1
18.1.9Gambling Addiction & Learning Theory
18.1.10Social Influences on Addiction 1
18.1.11Social Influences on Addiction 2
18.1.12Personal Influences on Addiction
18.1.13Genetic Explanations of Addiction
18.1.14End of Topic Test - Addiction 2
Jump to other topics
1Social Influence
1.1Social Influence
1.1.1Conformity
1.1.2Asch (1951)
1.1.3Sherif (1935)
1.1.4Conformity to Social Roles
1.1.5BBC Prison Study
1.1.6End of Topic Test - Conformity
1.1.7Obedience
1.1.8Analysing Milgram's Experiment
1.1.9Agentic State & Legitimate Authority
1.1.10Variables of Obedience
1.1.11Resistance to Social Influence
1.1.12Minority Influence & Social Change
1.1.13Minority Influence & Social Impact Theory
1.1.14End of Topic Test - Social Influences
1.1.15Exam-Style Question - Conformity
1.1.16Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Social Influence
2Memory
2.1Memory
2.1.1Multi-Store Model of Memory
2.1.2Short-Term vs Long-Term Memory
2.1.3Long-Term Memory
2.1.4Support for the Multi-Store Model of Memory
2.1.5Duration Studies
2.1.6Capacity Studies
2.1.7Coding Studies
2.1.8The Working Memory Model
2.1.9The Working Memory Model 2
2.1.10Support for the Working Memory Model
2.1.11Explanations for Forgetting
2.1.12Studies on Interference
2.1.13Cue-Dependent Forgetting
2.1.14Eye Witness Testimony - Loftus & Palmer
2.1.15Eye Witness Testimony Loftus
2.1.16Eyewitness Testimony - Post-Event Discussion
2.1.17Eyewitness Testimony - Age & Misleading Questions
2.1.18Cognitive Interview
2.1.19Cognitive Interview - Geiselman & Fisher
2.1.20End of Topic Test - Memory
2.1.21Exam-Style Question - Memory
2.1.22A-A* (AO3/4) - Memory
3Attachment
3.1Attachment
3.1.1Caregiver-Infant Interaction
3.1.2Condon & Sander (1974)
3.1.3Schaffer & Emerson (1964)
3.1.4Multiple Attachments
3.1.5Studies on the Role of the Father
3.1.6Animal Studies of Attachment
3.1.7Explanations of Attachment
3.1.8Attachment Types - Strange Situation
3.1.9Cultural Differences in Attachment
3.1.10Disruption of Attachment
3.1.11Disruption of Attachment - Privation
3.1.12Overcoming the Effects of Disruption
3.1.13The Effects of Institutionalisation
3.1.14Early Attachment
3.1.15Critical Period of Attachment
3.1.16End of Topic Test - Attachment
3.1.17Exam-Style Question - Attachment
3.1.18Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Attachment
4(2026 Exams) Psychopathology
4.1Psychopathology
4.1.1Abnormality
4.1.2Abnormality 2
4.1.3Phobias, Depression & OCD
4.1.4Phobias: Behavioural Approach
4.1.5Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias
4.1.6Depression: Cognitive Approach
4.1.7OCD: Biological Approach
4.1.8Evidence for the Biological Approach
4.1.9End of Topic Test - Psychopathy
4.1.10Exam-Style Question - Phobias
4.1.11Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology
4.1.12Diagnostic Misconceptions - Phobia vs Fear
4.1.13Diagnostic Misconceptions - Depression & Self-Harm
4.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Desensitisation
5Approaches in Psychology
5.1Approaches in Psychology
5.1.1Psychology as a Science
5.1.2Origins of Psychology
5.1.3Reductionism & Problems with Introspection
5.1.4The Behaviourist Approach - Classical Conditioning
5.1.5Pavlov's Experiment
5.1.6Little Albert Study
5.1.7The Behaviourist Approach - Operant Conditioning
5.1.8Social Learning Theory
5.1.9The Cognitive Approach 1
5.1.10The Cognitive Approach 2
5.1.11The Biological Approach
5.1.12Gottesman (1991) - Twin Studies
5.1.13Brain Scanning
5.1.14Structure of Personality & Little Hans
5.1.15The Psychodynamic Approach (A2 only)
5.1.16Humanistic Psychology (A2 only)
5.1.17Aronoff (1957) (A2 Only)
5.1.18Rogers' Client-Centred Therapy (A2 only)
5.1.19End of Topic Test - Approaches in Psychology
5.1.20Exam-Style Question - Approaches in Psychology
5.2Comparison of Approaches (A2 only)
6Biopsychology
6.1Biopsychology
6.1.1Nervous System Divisions
6.1.2Neuron Structure & Function
6.1.3Neurotransmitters
6.1.4Endocrine System Function
6.1.5Fight or Flight Response
6.1.6The Brain (A2 only)
6.1.7Localisation of Brain Function (A2 only)
6.1.8Studying the Brain (A2 only)
6.1.9CIMT (A2 Only) & Postmortem Examinations
6.1.10Biological Rhythms (A2 only)
6.1.11Studies on Biological Rhythms (A2 Only)
6.1.12End of Topic Test - Biopsychology
6.1.13Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Biopsychology
6.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Plasticity & Recovery
6.1.15Diagnostic Misconceptions - Endogenous Pacemakers
7(2027 Exams) Clinical Psychology & Mental Health
7.1Clinical Psychology & Mental Health
7.1.1Deviation from Social Norms
7.1.2Deviation from Social Norms 2
7.1.3Phobias, Depression & OCD
7.1.4Phobias: Behavioural Approach
7.1.5Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias
7.1.6Depression: Cognitive Approach
7.1.7OCD: Biological Approach
7.1.8Evidence for the Biological Approach
7.1.9End of Topic Test - Psychopathy
7.1.10Exam-Style Question - Phobias
7.1.11Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology
7.1.12Diagnostic Misconceptions - Phobia vs Fear
7.1.13Diagnostic Misconceptions - Depression & Self-Harm
7.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Desensitisation
8Research Methods
8.1Research Methods
8.1.1Experimental Method
8.1.2Observational Techniques
8.1.3Covert, Overt & Controlled Observation
8.1.4Self-Report Techniques
8.1.5Correlations
8.1.6Exam-Style Question - Research Methods
8.1.7End of Topic Test - Research Methods
8.1.8Diagnostic Misconceptions - Sign Test
8.1.9Diagnostic Misconceptions - Content & Thematic
8.1.10Diagnostic Misconceptions - Valid vs Reliable
8.1.11Diagnostic Misconceptions - Confounding Variable
8.2Scientific Processes
8.2.1Aims, Hypotheses & Sampling
8.2.2Pilot Studies & Design
8.2.3Questionnaires
8.2.4Variables & Control
8.2.5Demand Characteristics & Investigator Effects
8.2.6Ethics
8.2.7Limitations of Ethical Guidelines
8.2.8Consent & Protection from Harm Studies
8.2.9Peer Review & The Economy
8.2.10Validity (A2 only)
8.2.11Reliability (A2 only)
8.2.12Features of Science (A2 only)
8.2.13Paradigms & Falsifiability (A2 only)
8.2.14Scientific Report (A2 only)
8.2.15Scientific Report 2 (A2 only)
8.2.16End of Topic Test - Scientific Processes
8.3Data Handling & Analysis
8.3.1Types of Data
8.3.2Descriptive Statistics
8.3.3Correlation
8.3.4Evaluation of Descriptive Statistics
8.3.5Presentation & Display of Data
8.3.6Levels of Measurement (A2 only)
8.3.7Content Analysis (A2 only)
8.3.8Case Studies (A2 only)
8.3.9Thematic Analysis (A2 only)
8.3.10End of Topic Test - Data Handling & Analysis
9Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
9.1Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
9.1.1Culture Bias
9.1.2Sub-Culture Bias
9.1.3Gender Bias
9.1.4Ethnocentrism
9.1.5Cross Cultural Research
9.1.6Free Will & Determinism
9.1.7Comparison of Free Will & Determinism
9.1.8Reductionism & Holism
9.1.9Reductionist & Holistic Approaches
9.1.10Nature-Nurture Debate
9.1.11Interactionist Approach
9.1.12Nature-Nurture Methods
9.1.13Nature-Nurture Approaches
9.1.14Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches
9.1.15Socially Sensitive Research
9.1.16End of Topic Test - Issues and Debates
10Option 1: Relationships (A2 only)
10.1Relationships: Sexual Relationships (A2 only)
10.1.1Sexual Selection & Human Reproductive Behaviour
10.1.2Intersexual & Intrasexual Selection
10.1.3Evaluation of Sexual Selection Behaviour
10.1.4Factors Affecting Attraction: Self-Disclosure
10.1.5Evaluation of Self-Disclosure Theory
10.1.6Self Disclosure in Computer Communication
10.1.7Factors Affecting Attraction: Physical Attributes
10.1.8Matching Hypothesis Studies
10.1.9Factors Affecting Physical Attraction
10.1.10Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 1
10.1.11Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 2
10.1.12Evaluation of Filter Theory
10.1.13End of Topic Test - Sexual Relationships
10.2Relationships: Romantic Relationships (A2 only)
10.2.1Social Exchange Theory
10.2.2Evaluation of Social Exchange Theory
10.2.3Equity Theory
10.2.4Evaluation of Equity Theory
10.2.5Rusbult’s Investment Model
10.2.6Evaluation of Rusbult's Investment Model
10.2.7Relationship Breakdown
10.2.8Studies on Relationship Breakdown
10.2.9Evaluation of Relationship Breakdown
10.2.10End of Topic Test - Romantic relationships
10.3Relationships: Virtual & Parasocial (A2 only)
11Option 1: Gender (A2 only)
11.1Gender (A2 only)
11.1.1Sex, Gender & Androgyny
11.1.2Gender Identity Disorder
11.1.3Biological & Social Explanations of GID
11.1.4Biological Influences on Gender
11.1.5Effects of Hormones on Gender
11.1.6End of Topic Test - Gender 1
11.1.7Kohlberg’s Theory of Gender Constancy
11.1.8Evaluation of Kohlberg's Theory
11.1.9Gender Schema Theory
11.1.10Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 1
11.1.11Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 2
11.1.12Social Approach to Gender Development
11.1.13Criticisms of Social Theory
11.1.14End of Topic Test - Gender 2
11.1.15Media Influence on Gender Development
11.1.16Cross Cultural Research
11.1.17Childcare & Gender Roles
11.1.18End of Topic Test - Gender 3
12Option 1: Cognition & Development (A2 only)
12.1Cognition & Development (A2 only)
12.1.1Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 1
12.1.2Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 2
12.1.3Schema Accommodation Assimilation & Equilibration
12.1.4Piaget & Inhelder’s Three Mountains Task (1956)
12.1.5Conservation & Class Inclusion
12.1.6Evaluation of Piaget
12.1.7End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 1
12.1.8Vygotsky
12.1.9Evaluation of Vygotsky
12.1.10Baillargeon
12.1.11Baillargeon's studies
12.1.12Evaluation of Baillargeon
12.1.13End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 2
12.1.14Sense of Self & Theory of Mind
12.1.15Baron-Cohen Studies
12.1.16Selman’s Five Levels of Perspective Taking
12.1.17Biological Basis of Social Cognition
12.1.18Evaluation of Biological Basis of Social Cognition
12.1.19Important Issues in Social Neuroscience
12.1.20End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 3
12.1.21Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Cognition & Development
13Option 2: Schizophrenia (A2 only)
13.1Schizophrenia: Diagnosis (A2 only)
13.2Schizophrenia: Treatment (A2 only)
13.2.1Family-Based Psychological Explanations
13.2.2Evaluation of Family-Based Explanations
13.2.3Cognitive Explanations
13.2.4Drug Therapies
13.2.5Evaluation of Drug Therapies
13.2.6Biological Explanations for Schizophrenia
13.2.7Dopamine Hypothesis
13.2.8End of Topic Test - Schizoprenia Treatment 1
13.2.9Psychological Therapies 1
13.2.10Psychological Therapies 2
13.2.11Evaluation of Psychological Therapies
13.2.12Interactionist Approach - Diathesis-Stress Model
13.2.13Interactionist Approach - Triggers & Treatment
13.2.14Evaluation of the Interactionist Approach
13.2.15End of Topic Test - Scizophrenia Treatments 2
13.2.16Diagnostic Misconceptions - CBT & CBTp
14Option 2: Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
14.1Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
14.1.1Explanations for Food Preferences
14.1.2Birch et al (1987) & Lowe et al (2004)
14.1.3Control of Eating Behaviours
14.1.4Control of Eating Behaviour: Leptin
14.1.5Biological Explanations for Anorexia Nervosa
14.1.6Psychological Explanations: Family Systems Theory
14.1.7Psychological Explanations: Social Learning Theory
14.1.8Psychological Explanations: Cognitive Theory
14.1.9Biological Explanations for Obesity
14.1.10Biological Explanations: Studies
14.1.11Psychological Explanations for Obesity
14.1.12Psychological Explanations: Studies
14.1.13End of Topic Test - Eating Behaviour
15Option 2: Stress (A2 only)
15.1Stress (A2 only)
15.1.1Physiology of Stress
15.1.2Role of Stress in Illness
15.1.3Role of Stress in Illness: Studies
15.1.4Social Readjustment Rating Scales
15.1.5Hassles & Uplifts Scales
15.1.6Stress, Workload & Control
15.1.7Stress Level Studies
15.1.8End of Topic Test - Stress 1
15.1.9Physiological Measures of Stress
15.1.10Individual Differences
15.1.11Stress & Gender
15.1.12Drug Therapy & Biofeedback for Stress
15.1.13Stress Inoculation Therapy
15.1.14Social Support & Stress
15.1.15End of Topic Test - Stress 2
16Option 3: Aggression (A2 only)
16.1Aggression: Physiological (A2 only)
16.1.1Neural Mechanisms
16.1.2Serotonin
16.1.3Hormonal Mechanisms
16.1.4Genetic Factors
16.1.5Genetic Factors 2
16.1.6End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 1
16.1.7Ethological Explanation
16.1.8Innate Releasing Mechanisms & Fixed Action Pattern
16.1.9Evolutionary Explanations
16.1.10Buss et al (1992) - Sex Differences in Jealousy
16.1.11Evaluation of Evolutionary Explanations
16.1.12End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 2
16.2Aggression: Social Psychological (A2 only)
16.2.1Social Psychological Explanation
16.2.2Buss (1963) - Frustration/Aggression
16.2.3Social Psychological Explanation 2
16.2.4Social Learning Theory (SLT) 1
16.2.5Social Learning Theory (SLT) 2
16.2.6Limitations of Social Learning Theory (SLT)
16.2.7Deindividuation
16.2.8Deindividuation 2
16.2.9Deindividuation - Diener et al (1976)
16.2.10End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology
16.2.11Institutional Aggression: Prisons
16.2.12Evaluation of Dispositional & Situational
16.2.13Influence of Computer Games
16.2.14Influence of Television
16.2.15Evaluation of Studies on Media
16.2.16Desensitisation & Disinhibition
16.2.17Cognitive Priming
16.2.18End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology
17Option 3: Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
17.1Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
17.1.1Defining Crime
17.1.2Measuring Crime
17.1.3Offender Profiling
17.1.4Evaluation of Offender Profiling
17.1.5John Duffy Case Study
17.1.6Biological Explanations 1
17.1.7Biological Explanations 2
17.1.8Evaluation of the Biological Explanation
17.1.9Cognitive Explanations
17.1.10Moral Reasoning
17.1.11Psychodynamic Explanation 1
17.1.12Psychodynamic Explanation 2
17.1.13End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 1
17.1.14Differential Association Theory
17.1.15Custodial Sentencing
17.1.16Effects of Prison
17.1.17Evaluation of the Effects of Prison
17.1.18Recidivism
17.1.19Behavioural Treatments & Therapies
17.1.20Effectiveness of Behavioural Treatments
17.1.21Restorative Justice
17.1.22End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 2
18Option 3: Addiction (A2 only)
18.1Addiction (A2 only)
18.1.1Definition
18.1.2Brain Neurochemistry Explanation
18.1.3Learning Theory Explanation
18.1.4Evaluation of a Learning Theory Explanation
18.1.5Cognitive Bias
18.1.6Griffiths on Cognitive Bias
18.1.7Evaluation of Cognitive Theory (A2 only)
18.1.8End of Topic Test - Addiction 1
18.1.9Gambling Addiction & Learning Theory
18.1.10Social Influences on Addiction 1
18.1.11Social Influences on Addiction 2
18.1.12Personal Influences on Addiction
18.1.13Genetic Explanations of Addiction
18.1.14End of Topic Test - Addiction 2
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