8.1.5

Cross Cultural Research

Test yourself

Social Implications of Cultural Bias

If studies are culturally biased, then the theories from the studies will also be culturally biased. People reading these studies and broader society could be affected.

Illustrative background for Implications of cultural bias Illustrative background for Implications of cultural bias ?? "content

Implications of cultural bias

  • Psychology studies and theories have broader implications in society.
  • This can be especially problematic when the theories affect psychological practice and therapies.
Illustrative background for __Cochrane and Sashidharan__ Illustrative background for __Cochrane and Sashidharan__ ?? "content

Cochrane and Sashidharan

  • Cochrane and Sashidharan examined diagnosis rates of schizophrenia in the UK.
  • They compared the rates in people of African-Caribbean origin to the rest of the population.
  • They found that those of African-Caribbean origin were seven times more likely to be diagnosed.
Illustrative background for __Cochrane and Sashidharan__ conclusionsIllustrative background for __Cochrane and Sashidharan__ conclusions ?? "content

Cochrane and Sashidharan conclusions

  • From this, people could draw the conclusion that people of African-Caribbean origin may have a higher genetic predisposition towards it.
  • But by looking at the rates of schizophrenia in the Caribbean, they are no higher than the UK.
  • So people could have a misconception about schizophrenia rates in African-Caribbean’s.
Illustrative background for __Littlewood and Lipsedge (1989)__ Illustrative background for __Littlewood and Lipsedge (1989)__ ?? "content

Littlewood and Lipsedge (1989)

  • Littlewood and Lipsedge (1989) found that African-Caribbean patients were more likely to be prescribed stronger doses of medication.
  • The symptoms could be exactly the same as patients of other ethnicities and they would still be prescribed higher doses.
  • This suggests that doctors were interpreting the symptoms as being much more severe.

Issues with Cross-Cultural Research

Cross-cultural research, while crucial to a broader understanding of all human behaviour, does have its challenges. In addition, cultural bias can be prevalent but can be ameliorated.

Illustrative background for Main issues with cross-cultural researchIllustrative background for Main issues with cross-cultural research ?? "content

Main issues with cross-cultural research

  • There are two main issues with cross-cultural research:
    • Difficulty in interpretation.
    • Difficulty in replicability. This causes the results to be less valid.
Illustrative background for Difficulty in interpretationIllustrative background for Difficulty in interpretation ?? "content

Difficulty in interpretation

  • Communication between two different languages is challenging, even with a translator.
  • Subtle subtext, proverbs, beliefs, customs and colloquialisms can be difficult to translate or understand.
  • So findings and data can be misinterpreted.
  • This can result in ethnocentric bias because the researchers are judging behaviours against their own cultural norms.
Illustrative background for Difficulty in replicabilityIllustrative background for Difficulty in replicability ?? "content

Difficulty in replicability

  • The ability to replicate studies is the hallmark of scientific research.
  • Replication increases validity.
  • But cross-cultural studies can be difficult to replicate because of a decreased ability to properly translate procedures.
Illustrative background for Example - six cultures and six languagesIllustrative background for Example - six cultures and six languages ?? "content

Example - six cultures and six languages

  • If a study is going to be conducted across six different cultures with six different languages, the detailed minutiae of the procedures may get 'lost in translation'.
  • Smith and Bond (1988) argued that perfect replications are impossible because of this.

Reducing Cultural Bias

There are three ways of reducing cultural bias. It is important to note that cultural bias may not be intentional, but is still important to minimise.

Illustrative background for Cultural relativismIllustrative background for Cultural relativism ?? "content

Cultural relativism

  • Cultural relativism is the idea that there is no universal standard to behaviour.
  • Psychological research should take into account the culture that it is being conducted in, i.e. they must observe cultural relativism.
Illustrative background for Representative samplingIllustrative background for Representative sampling ?? "content

Representative sampling

  • Secondly, all sub-groups within a larger group should be represented.
  • Sampling should be representative of all sub-groups from which you want to draw conclusions.
  • This will allow for generalisability of results.
Illustrative background for Sampling example - __Margaret Mead (1935)__Illustrative background for Sampling example - __Margaret Mead (1935)__ ?? "content

Sampling example - Margaret Mead (1935)

  • For example, Margaret Mead (1935) studied three tribes of Papua New Guinea when examining gender roles.
  • To be truly representative and generalisable, all tribes should have been taken into account.
Illustrative background for ContextIllustrative background for Context ?? "content

Context

  • Finally, research should be conducted in meaningful contexts and use researchers local to the culture being studied (Berry, 1969).
  • This allows for issues of imposed etic to be reduced.

Jump to other topics

1Social Influence

1.1Social Influence

1.1.1Conformity

1.1.2Asch (1951)

1.1.3Sherif (1935)

1.1.4Conformity to Social Roles

1.1.5BBC Prison Study

1.1.6End of Topic Test - Conformity

1.1.7Obedience

1.1.8Analysing Milgram's Experiment

1.1.9Agentic State & Legitimate Authority

1.1.10Variables of Obedience

1.1.11Resistance to Social Influence

1.1.12Minority Influence & Social Change

1.1.13Minority Influence & Social Impact Theory

1.1.14End of Topic Test - Social Influences

1.1.15Exam-Style Question - Conformity

1.1.16Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Social Influence

2Memory

2.1Memory

2.1.1Multi-Store Model of Memory

2.1.2Short-Term vs Long-Term Memory

2.1.3Long-Term Memory

2.1.4Support for the Multi-Store Model of Memory

2.1.5Duration Studies

2.1.6Capacity Studies

2.1.7Coding Studies

2.1.8The Working Memory Model

2.1.9The Working Memory Model 2

2.1.10Support for the Working Memory Model

2.1.11Explanations for Forgetting

2.1.12Studies on Interference

2.1.13Cue-Dependent Forgetting

2.1.14Eye Witness Testimony - Loftus & Palmer

2.1.15Eye Witness Testimony Loftus

2.1.16Eyewitness Testimony - Post-Event Discussion

2.1.17Eyewitness Testimony - Age & Misleading Questions

2.1.18Cognitive Interview

2.1.19Cognitive Interview - Geiselman & Fisher

2.1.20End of Topic Test - Memory

2.1.21Exam-Style Question - Memory

2.1.22A-A* (AO3/4) - Memory

3Attachment

3.1Attachment

3.1.1Caregiver-Infant Interaction

3.1.2Condon & Sander (1974)

3.1.3Schaffer & Emerson (1964)

3.1.4Multiple Attachments

3.1.5Studies on the Role of the Father

3.1.6Animal Studies of Attachment

3.1.7Explanations of Attachment

3.1.8Attachment Types - Strange Situation

3.1.9Cultural Differences in Attachment

3.1.10Disruption of Attachment

3.1.11Disruption of Attachment - Privation

3.1.12Overcoming the Effects of Disruption

3.1.13The Effects of Institutionalisation

3.1.14Early Attachment

3.1.15Critical Period of Attachment

3.1.16End of Topic Test - Attachment

3.1.17Exam-Style Question - Attachment

3.1.18Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Attachment

4Psychopathology

4.1Psychopathology

4.1.1Definitions of Abnormality

4.1.2Definitions of Abnormality 2

4.1.3Phobias, Depression & OCD

4.1.4Phobias: Behavioural Approach

4.1.5Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias

4.1.6Depression: Cognitive Approach

4.1.7OCD: Biological Approach

4.1.8Evidence for the Biological Approach

4.1.9End of Topic Test - Psychopathy

4.1.10Exam-Style Question - Phobias

4.1.11Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology

5Approaches in Psychology

5.1Approaches in Psychology

5.1.1Psychology as a Science

5.1.2Origins of Psychology

5.1.3Reductionism & Problems with Introspection

5.1.4The Behaviourist Approach - Classical Conditioning

5.1.5Pavlov's Experiment

5.1.6Little Albert Study

5.1.7The Behaviourist Approach - Operant Conditioning

5.1.8Social Learning Theory

5.1.9The Cognitive Approach 1

5.1.10The Cognitive Approach 2

5.1.11The Biological Approach

5.1.12Gottesman (1991) - Twin Studies

5.1.13Brain Scanning

5.1.14Structure of Personality & Little Hans

5.1.15The Psychodynamic Approach (A2 only)

5.1.16Humanistic Psychology (A2 only)

5.1.17Aronoff (1957) (A2 Only)

5.1.18Rogers' Client-Centred Therapy (A2 only)

5.1.19End of Topic Test - Approaches in Psychology

5.1.20Exam-Style Question - Approaches in Psychology

5.2Comparison of Approaches (A2 only)

5.2.1Psychodynamic Approach

5.2.2Cognitive Approach

5.2.3Biological Approach

5.2.4Behavioural Approach

5.2.5End of Topic Test - Comparison of Approaches

6Biopsychology

6.1Biopsychology

6.1.1Nervous System Divisions

6.1.2Neuron Structure & Function

6.1.3Neurotransmitters

6.1.4Endocrine System Function

6.1.5Fight or Flight Response

6.1.6The Brain (A2 only)

6.1.7Localisation of Brain Function (A2 only)

6.1.8Studying the Brain (A2 only)

6.1.9CIMT (A2 Only) & Postmortem Examinations

6.1.10Biological Rhythms (A2 only)

6.1.11Studies on Biological Rhythms (A2 Only)

6.1.12End of Topic Test - Biopsychology

6.1.13Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Biopsychology

7Research Methods

7.1Research Methods

7.1.1Experimental Method

7.1.2Observational Techniques

7.1.3Covert, Overt & Controlled Observation

7.1.4Self-Report Techniques

7.1.5Correlations

7.1.6Exam-Style Question - Research Methods

7.1.7End of Topic Test - Research Methods

7.2Scientific Processes

7.2.1Aims, Hypotheses & Sampling

7.2.2Pilot Studies & Design

7.2.3Questionnaires

7.2.4Variables & Control

7.2.5Demand Characteristics & Investigator Effects

7.2.6Ethics

7.2.7Limitations of Ethical Guidelines

7.2.8Consent & Protection from Harm Studies

7.2.9Peer Review & The Economy

7.2.10Validity (A2 only)

7.2.11Reliability (A2 only)

7.2.12Features of Science (A2 only)

7.2.13Paradigms & Falsifiability (A2 only)

7.2.14Scientific Report (A2 only)

7.2.15Scientific Report 2 (A2 only)

7.2.16End of Topic Test - Scientific Processes

7.3Data Handling & Analysis

7.3.1Types of Data

7.3.2Descriptive Statistics

7.3.3Correlation

7.3.4Evaluation of Descriptive Statistics

7.3.5Presentation & Display of Data

7.3.6Levels of Measurement (A2 only)

7.3.7Content Analysis (A2 only)

7.3.8Case Studies (A2 only)

7.3.9Thematic Analysis (A2 only)

7.3.10End of Topic Test - Data Handling & Analysis

7.4Inferential Testing

7.4.1Introduction to Inferential Testing

7.4.2Sign Test

7.4.3Piaget Conservation Experiment

7.4.4Non-Parametric Tests

8Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)

8.1Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)

8.1.1Culture Bias

8.1.2Sub-Culture Bias

8.1.3Gender Bias

8.1.4Ethnocentrism

8.1.5Cross Cultural Research

8.1.6Free Will & Determinism

8.1.7Comparison of Free Will & Determinism

8.1.8Reductionism & Holism

8.1.9Reductionist & Holistic Approaches

8.1.10Nature-Nurture Debate

8.1.11Interactionist Approach

8.1.12Nature-Nurture Methods

8.1.13Nature-Nurture Approaches

8.1.14Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches

8.1.15Socially Sensitive Research

8.1.16End of Topic Test - Issues and Debates

9Option 1: Relationships (A2 only)

9.1Relationships: Sexual Relationships (A2 only)

9.1.1Sexual Selection & Human Reproductive Behaviour

9.1.2Intersexual & Intrasexual Selection

9.1.3Evaluation of Sexual Selection Behaviour

9.1.4Factors Affecting Attraction: Self-Disclosure

9.1.5Evaluation of Self-Disclosure Theory

9.1.6Self Disclosure in Computer Communication

9.1.7Factors Affecting Attraction: Physical Attributes

9.1.8Matching Hypothesis Studies

9.1.9Factors Affecting Physical Attraction

9.1.10Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 1

9.1.11Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 2

9.1.12Evaluation of Filter Theory

9.1.13End of Topic Test - Sexual Relationships

9.2Relationships: Romantic Relationships (A2 only)

9.2.1Social Exchange Theory

9.2.2Evaluation of Social Exchange Theory

9.2.3Equity Theory

9.2.4Evaluation of Equity Theory

9.2.5Rusbult’s Investment Model

9.2.6Evaluation of Rusbult's Investment Model

9.2.7Relationship Breakdown

9.2.8Studies on Relationship Breakdown

9.2.9Evaluation of Relationship Breakdown

9.2.10End of Topic Test - Romantic relationships

9.3Relationships: Virtual & Parasocial (A2 only)

9.3.1Virtual Relationships in Social Media

9.3.2Evaluation of Reduced Cues & Hyperpersonal

9.3.3Parasocial Relationships

9.3.4Attachment Theory & Parasocial Relationships

9.3.5Evaluation of Parasocial Relationship Theories

9.3.6End of Topic Test - Virtual & Parasocial Realtions

10Option 1: Gender (A2 only)

10.1Gender (A2 only)

10.1.1Sex, Gender & Androgyny

10.1.2Gender Identity Disorder

10.1.3Biological & Social Explanations of GID

10.1.4Biological Influences on Gender

10.1.5Effects of Hormones on Gender

10.1.6End of Topic Test - Gender 1

10.1.7Kohlberg’s Theory of Gender Constancy

10.1.8Evaluation of Kohlberg's Theory

10.1.9Gender Schema Theory

10.1.10Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 1

10.1.11Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 2

10.1.12Social Approach to Gender Development

10.1.13Criticisms of Social Theory

10.1.14End of Topic Test - Gender 2

10.1.15Media Influence on Gender Development

10.1.16Cross Cultural Research

10.1.17Childcare & Gender Roles

10.1.18End of Topic Test - Gender 3

11Option 1: Cognition & Development (A2 only)

11.1Cognition & Development (A2 only)

11.1.1Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 1

11.1.2Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 2

11.1.3Schema Accommodation Assimilation & Equilibration

11.1.4Piaget & Inhelder’s Three Mountains Task (1956)

11.1.5Conservation & Class Inclusion

11.1.6Evaluation of Piaget

11.1.7End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 1

11.1.8Vygotsky

11.1.9Evaluation of Vygotsky

11.1.10Baillargeon

11.1.11Baillargeon's studies

11.1.12Evaluation of Baillargeon

11.1.13End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 2

11.1.14Sense of Self & Theory of Mind

11.1.15Baron-Cohen Studies

11.1.16Selman’s Five Levels of Perspective Taking

11.1.17Biological Basis of Social Cognition

11.1.18Evaluation of Biological Basis of Social Cognition

11.1.19Important Issues in Social Neuroscience

11.1.20End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 3

11.1.21Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Cognition & Development

12Option 2: Schizophrenia (A2 only)

12.1Schizophrenia: Diagnosis (A2 only)

12.1.1Classification & Diagnosis

12.1.2Reliability & Validity of Diagnosis

12.1.3Gender & Cultural Bias

12.1.4Pinto (2017) & Copeland (1971)

12.1.5End of Topic Test - Scizophrenia Diagnosis

12.2Schizophrenia: Treatment (A2 only)

12.2.1Family-Based Psychological Explanations

12.2.2Evaluation of Family-Based Explanations

12.2.3Cognitive Explanations

12.2.4Drug Therapies

12.2.5Evaluation of Drug Therapies

12.2.6Biological Explanations for Schizophrenia

12.2.7Dopamine Hypothesis

12.2.8End of Topic Test - Schizoprenia Treatment 1

12.2.9Psychological Therapies 1

12.2.10Psychological Therapies 2

12.2.11Evaluation of Psychological Therapies

12.2.12Interactionist Approach - Diathesis-Stress Model

12.2.13Interactionist Approach - Triggers & Treatment

12.2.14Evaluation of the Interactionist Approach

12.2.15End of Topic Test - Scizophrenia Treatments 2

13Option 2: Eating Behaviour (A2 only)

13.1Eating Behaviour (A2 only)

13.1.1Explanations for Food Preferences

13.1.2Birch et al (1987) & Lowe et al (2004)

13.1.3Control of Eating Behaviours

13.1.4Control of Eating Behaviour: Leptin

13.1.5Biological Explanations for Anorexia Nervosa

13.1.6Psychological Explanations: Family Systems Theory

13.1.7Psychological Explanations: Social Learning Theory

13.1.8Psychological Explanations: Cognitive Theory

13.1.9Biological Explanations for Obesity

13.1.10Biological Explanations: Studies

13.1.11Psychological Explanations for Obesity

13.1.12Psychological Explanations: Studies

13.1.13End of Topic Test - Eating Behaviour

14Option 2: Stress (A2 only)

14.1Stress (A2 only)

14.1.1Physiology of Stress

14.1.2Role of Stress in Illness

14.1.3Role of Stress in Illness: Studies

14.1.4Social Readjustment Rating Scales

14.1.5Hassles & Uplifts Scales

14.1.6Stress, Workload & Control

14.1.7Stress Level Studies

14.1.8End of Topic Test - Stress 1

14.1.9Physiological Measures of Stress

14.1.10Individual Differences

14.1.11Stress & Gender

14.1.12Drug Therapy & Biofeedback for Stress

14.1.13Stress Inoculation Therapy

14.1.14Social Support & Stress

14.1.15End of Topic Test - Stress 2

15Option 3: Aggression (A2 only)

15.1Aggression: Physiological (A2 only)

15.1.1Neural Mechanisms

15.1.2Serotonin

15.1.3Hormonal Mechanisms

15.1.4Genetic Factors

15.1.5Genetic Factors 2

15.1.6End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 1

15.1.7Ethological Explanation

15.1.8Innate Releasing Mechanisms & Fixed Action Pattern

15.1.9Evolutionary Explanations

15.1.10Buss et al (1992) - Sex Differences in Jealousy

15.1.11Evaluation of Evolutionary Explanations

15.1.12End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 2

15.2Aggression: Social Psychological (A2 only)

15.2.1Social Psychological Explanation

15.2.2Buss (1963) - Frustration/Aggression

15.2.3Social Psychological Explanation 2

15.2.4Social Learning Theory (SLT) 1

15.2.5Social Learning Theory (SLT) 2

15.2.6Limitations of Social Learning Theory (SLT)

15.2.7Deindividuation

15.2.8Deindividuation 2

15.2.9Deindividuation - Diener et al (1976)

15.2.10End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology

15.2.11Institutional Aggression: Prisons

15.2.12Evaluation of Dispositional & Situational

15.2.13Influence of Computer Games

15.2.14Influence of Television

15.2.15Evaluation of Studies on Media

15.2.16Desensitisation & Disinhibition

15.2.17Cognitive Priming

15.2.18End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology

16Option 3: Forensic Psychology (A2 only)

16.1Forensic Psychology (A2 only)

16.1.1Defining Crime

16.1.2Measuring Crime

16.1.3Offender Profiling

16.1.4Evaluation of Offender Profiling

16.1.5John Duffy Case Study

16.1.6Biological Explanations 1

16.1.7Biological Explanations 2

16.1.8Evaluation of the Biological Explanation

16.1.9Cognitive Explanations

16.1.10Moral Reasoning

16.1.11Psychodynamic Explanation 1

16.1.12Psychodynamic Explanation 2

16.1.13End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 1

16.1.14Differential Association Theory

16.1.15Custodial Sentencing

16.1.16Effects of Prison

16.1.17Evaluation of the Effects of Prison

16.1.18Recidivism

16.1.19Behavioural Treatments & Therapies

16.1.20Effectiveness of Behavioural Treatments

16.1.21Restorative Justice

16.1.22End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 2

17Option 3: Addiction (A2 only)

17.1Addiction (A2 only)

17.1.1Definition

17.1.2Brain Neurochemistry Explanation

17.1.3Learning Theory Explanation

17.1.4Evaluation of a Learning Theory Explanation

17.1.5Cognitive Bias

17.1.6Griffiths on Cognitive Bias

17.1.7Evaluation of Cognitive Theory (A2 only)

17.1.8End of Topic Test - Addiction 1

17.1.9Gambling Addiction & Learning Theory

17.1.10Social Influences on Addiction 1

17.1.11Social Influences on Addiction 2

17.1.12Personal Influences on Addiction

17.1.13Genetic Explanations of Addiction

17.1.14End of Topic Test - Addiction 2

17.2Treating Addiction (A2 only)

17.2.1Drug Therapy

17.2.2Behavioural Interventions

17.2.3Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

17.2.4Theory of Reasoned Action

17.2.5Theory of Planned Behaviour

17.2.6Six Stage Model of Behaviour Change

17.2.7End of Topic Test - Treating Addiction

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Ethnocentrism

Free Will & Determinism