14.1.2
Role of Stress in Illness
The Role of Stress in Illness
The Role of Stress in Illness
If the reactions that make up the stress response are chronic or if they frequently exceed normal ranges, they can lead to cumulative wear and tear of the immune system and cardiovascular system.
Chronic stress
Chronic stress
- The stress response is made up of a coordinated but complex system of physiological reactions that are called upon as needed.
- These reactions are beneficial at times because they prepare us to deal with potentially dangerous or threatening situations.
- But health is affected when physiological reactions are sustained, which can happen in response to ongoing stress.
Cardiovascular system
Cardiovascular system
- The cardiovascular system is made up of the heart and blood circulation system. There is evidence that stress directly affects this system.
- A major risk factor for coronary heart disease is hypertension, otherwise known as high blood pressure. Hypertension forces a person’s heart to pump harder, putting more physical strain on the heart. Hypertension can eventually lead to heart failure, heart attack or a stroke.
Cardiovascular system cont.
Cardiovascular system cont.
- Elevated stress levels have been shown to increase blood pressure. There are many stressors in people’s lives that have been linked to cardiovascular problems.
- E.g. job strain, natural disasters and marital conflict.
Immune system
Immune system
- The immune system is made up of a variety of structures, cells, and mechanisms that protect the body from invading toxins and microorganisms. These toxins and microorganisms can harm or damage the body’s tissues and organs.
- The immune system may sometimes break down and be unable to do its job. This situation is known as immunosuppression.
- Prolonged activation of the stress response has been shown to cause immunosuppression. Chronic stress can lead to increased vulnerability to infection and disease.
Studies Exploring the Effect of Stress on the Immune System
Studies Exploring the Effect of Stress on the Immune System
Many studies have shown that chronic stress has a negative effect on the functioning of the immune system.
Animal studies
Animal studies
- Some of the most compelling evidence for a connection between the brain and the immune system comes from studies in which researchers showed that immune responses in animals could be classically conditioned.
Ader and Cohern (1975)
Ader and Cohern (1975)
- Ader and Cohern (1975) paired flavoured water (the conditioned stimulus) with an immunosuppressive drug (the unconditioned stimulus), causing sickness (an unconditioned response).
- Rats exposed to this pairing developed a conditioned aversion to the flavoured water. Eventually, the taste of the water itself produced immunosuppression (a conditioned response), indicating that the immune system itself had been conditioned.
Cohen et al. (1998)
Cohen et al. (1998)
- Cohen et al. (1998) interviewed 276 healthy volunteers about recent stressful experiences before giving them nasal drops containing a cold virus.
- When examined later, participants who reported experiencing chronic stressors for more than one month were considerably more likely to have developed colds than were participants who reported no chronic stressors.
Evaluation of stress studies
Evaluation of stress studies
- Stressors very rarely happen independently in an individual’s life. So reduced immune system functioning may be due to more than just the stress experience.
- E.g. carers of individual’s with dementia also have poor diets and get little regular sleep. These factors have direct physiological effects and are likely to contribute to a worsened immune system.
Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (1995)
Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (1995)
Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (1995) studied carers for family members with Alzheimer’s disease. These individuals were under chronic stress.
Method and results
Method and results
- Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (1995) conducted an independent measures study using 13 individuals who were carers for family members with Alzheimer’s disease (and so under chronic stress) and 13 controls.
- Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (1995) made a small wound on the participant’s arms and found that this took on average nine days longer to heal for the carers than the controls.
- This suggests that the immune system is worse at healing wounds when a person is under chronic stress.
Evaluation
Evaluation
- Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (1935) had a very small sample size, so the study needs to be replicated with more people to be generalisable.
1Social Influence
1.1Social Influence
1.1.1Conformity
1.1.2Asch (1951)
1.1.3Sherif (1935)
1.1.4Conformity to Social Roles
1.1.5BBC Prison Study
1.1.6End of Topic Test - Conformity
1.1.7Obedience
1.1.8Analysing Milgram's Experiment
1.1.9Agentic State & Legitimate Authority
1.1.10Variables of Obedience
1.1.11Resistance to Social Influence
1.1.12Minority Influence & Social Change
1.1.13Minority Influence & Social Impact Theory
1.1.14End of Topic Test - Social Influences
1.1.15Exam-Style Question - Conformity
1.1.16Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Social Influence
2Memory
2.1Memory
2.1.1Multi-Store Model of Memory
2.1.2Short-Term vs Long-Term Memory
2.1.3Long-Term Memory
2.1.4Support for the Multi-Store Model of Memory
2.1.5Duration Studies
2.1.6Capacity Studies
2.1.7Coding Studies
2.1.8The Working Memory Model
2.1.9The Working Memory Model 2
2.1.10Support for the Working Memory Model
2.1.11Explanations for Forgetting
2.1.12Studies on Interference
2.1.13Cue-Dependent Forgetting
2.1.14Eye Witness Testimony - Loftus & Palmer
2.1.15Eye Witness Testimony Loftus
2.1.16Eyewitness Testimony - Post-Event Discussion
2.1.17Eyewitness Testimony - Age & Misleading Questions
2.1.18Cognitive Interview
2.1.19Cognitive Interview - Geiselman & Fisher
2.1.20End of Topic Test - Memory
2.1.21Exam-Style Question - Memory
2.1.22A-A* (AO3/4) - Memory
3Attachment
3.1Attachment
3.1.1Caregiver-Infant Interaction
3.1.2Condon & Sander (1974)
3.1.3Schaffer & Emerson (1964)
3.1.4Multiple Attachments
3.1.5Studies on the Role of the Father
3.1.6Animal Studies of Attachment
3.1.7Explanations of Attachment
3.1.8Attachment Types - Strange Situation
3.1.9Cultural Differences in Attachment
3.1.10Disruption of Attachment
3.1.11Disruption of Attachment - Privation
3.1.12Overcoming the Effects of Disruption
3.1.13The Effects of Institutionalisation
3.1.14Early Attachment
3.1.15Critical Period of Attachment
3.1.16End of Topic Test - Attachment
3.1.17Exam-Style Question - Attachment
3.1.18Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Attachment
4Psychopathology
4.1Psychopathology
4.1.1Definitions of Abnormality
4.1.2Definitions of Abnormality 2
4.1.3Phobias, Depression & OCD
4.1.4Phobias: Behavioural Approach
4.1.5Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias
4.1.6Depression: Cognitive Approach
4.1.7OCD: Biological Approach
4.1.8Evidence for the Biological Approach
4.1.9End of Topic Test - Psychopathy
4.1.10Exam-Style Question - Phobias
4.1.11Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology
5Approaches in Psychology
5.1Approaches in Psychology
5.1.1Psychology as a Science
5.1.2Origins of Psychology
5.1.3Reductionism & Problems with Introspection
5.1.4The Behaviourist Approach - Classical Conditioning
5.1.5Pavlov's Experiment
5.1.6Little Albert Study
5.1.7The Behaviourist Approach - Operant Conditioning
5.1.8Social Learning Theory
5.1.9The Cognitive Approach 1
5.1.10The Cognitive Approach 2
5.1.11The Biological Approach
5.1.12Gottesman (1991) - Twin Studies
5.1.13Brain Scanning
5.1.14Structure of Personality & Little Hans
5.1.15The Psychodynamic Approach (A2 only)
5.1.16Humanistic Psychology (A2 only)
5.1.17Aronoff (1957) (A2 Only)
5.1.18Rogers' Client-Centred Therapy (A2 only)
5.1.19End of Topic Test - Approaches in Psychology
5.1.20Exam-Style Question - Approaches in Psychology
5.2Comparison of Approaches (A2 only)
6Biopsychology
6.1Biopsychology
6.1.1Nervous System Divisions
6.1.2Neuron Structure & Function
6.1.3Neurotransmitters
6.1.4Endocrine System Function
6.1.5Fight or Flight Response
6.1.6The Brain (A2 only)
6.1.7Localisation of Brain Function (A2 only)
6.1.8Studying the Brain (A2 only)
6.1.9CIMT (A2 Only) & Postmortem Examinations
6.1.10Biological Rhythms (A2 only)
6.1.11Studies on Biological Rhythms (A2 Only)
6.1.12End of Topic Test - Biopsychology
6.1.13Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Biopsychology
7Research Methods
7.1Research Methods
7.2Scientific Processes
7.2.1Aims, Hypotheses & Sampling
7.2.2Pilot Studies & Design
7.2.3Questionnaires
7.2.4Variables & Control
7.2.5Demand Characteristics & Investigator Effects
7.2.6Ethics
7.2.7Limitations of Ethical Guidelines
7.2.8Consent & Protection from Harm Studies
7.2.9Peer Review & The Economy
7.2.10Validity (A2 only)
7.2.11Reliability (A2 only)
7.2.12Features of Science (A2 only)
7.2.13Paradigms & Falsifiability (A2 only)
7.2.14Scientific Report (A2 only)
7.2.15Scientific Report 2 (A2 only)
7.2.16End of Topic Test - Scientific Processes
7.3Data Handling & Analysis
7.3.1Types of Data
7.3.2Descriptive Statistics
7.3.3Correlation
7.3.4Evaluation of Descriptive Statistics
7.3.5Presentation & Display of Data
7.3.6Levels of Measurement (A2 only)
7.3.7Content Analysis (A2 only)
7.3.8Case Studies (A2 only)
7.3.9Thematic Analysis (A2 only)
7.3.10End of Topic Test - Data Handling & Analysis
8Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
8.1Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
8.1.1Culture Bias
8.1.2Sub-Culture Bias
8.1.3Gender Bias
8.1.4Ethnocentrism
8.1.5Cross Cultural Research
8.1.6Free Will & Determinism
8.1.7Comparison of Free Will & Determinism
8.1.8Reductionism & Holism
8.1.9Reductionist & Holistic Approaches
8.1.10Nature-Nurture Debate
8.1.11Interactionist Approach
8.1.12Nature-Nurture Methods
8.1.13Nature-Nurture Approaches
8.1.14Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches
8.1.15Socially Sensitive Research
8.1.16End of Topic Test - Issues and Debates
9Option 1: Relationships (A2 only)
9.1Relationships: Sexual Relationships (A2 only)
9.1.1Sexual Selection & Human Reproductive Behaviour
9.1.2Intersexual & Intrasexual Selection
9.1.3Evaluation of Sexual Selection Behaviour
9.1.4Factors Affecting Attraction: Self-Disclosure
9.1.5Evaluation of Self-Disclosure Theory
9.1.6Self Disclosure in Computer Communication
9.1.7Factors Affecting Attraction: Physical Attributes
9.1.8Matching Hypothesis Studies
9.1.9Factors Affecting Physical Attraction
9.1.10Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 1
9.1.11Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 2
9.1.12Evaluation of Filter Theory
9.1.13End of Topic Test - Sexual Relationships
9.2Relationships: Romantic Relationships (A2 only)
9.2.1Social Exchange Theory
9.2.2Evaluation of Social Exchange Theory
9.2.3Equity Theory
9.2.4Evaluation of Equity Theory
9.2.5Rusbult’s Investment Model
9.2.6Evaluation of Rusbult's Investment Model
9.2.7Relationship Breakdown
9.2.8Studies on Relationship Breakdown
9.2.9Evaluation of Relationship Breakdown
9.2.10End of Topic Test - Romantic relationships
9.3Relationships: Virtual & Parasocial (A2 only)
10Option 1: Gender (A2 only)
10.1Gender (A2 only)
10.1.1Sex, Gender & Androgyny
10.1.2Gender Identity Disorder
10.1.3Biological & Social Explanations of GID
10.1.4Biological Influences on Gender
10.1.5Effects of Hormones on Gender
10.1.6End of Topic Test - Gender 1
10.1.7Kohlberg’s Theory of Gender Constancy
10.1.8Evaluation of Kohlberg's Theory
10.1.9Gender Schema Theory
10.1.10Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 1
10.1.11Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 2
10.1.12Social Approach to Gender Development
10.1.13Criticisms of Social Theory
10.1.14End of Topic Test - Gender 2
10.1.15Media Influence on Gender Development
10.1.16Cross Cultural Research
10.1.17Childcare & Gender Roles
10.1.18End of Topic Test - Gender 3
11Option 1: Cognition & Development (A2 only)
11.1Cognition & Development (A2 only)
11.1.1Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 1
11.1.2Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 2
11.1.3Schema Accommodation Assimilation & Equilibration
11.1.4Piaget & Inhelder’s Three Mountains Task (1956)
11.1.5Conservation & Class Inclusion
11.1.6Evaluation of Piaget
11.1.7End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 1
11.1.8Vygotsky
11.1.9Evaluation of Vygotsky
11.1.10Baillargeon
11.1.11Baillargeon's studies
11.1.12Evaluation of Baillargeon
11.1.13End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 2
11.1.14Sense of Self & Theory of Mind
11.1.15Baron-Cohen Studies
11.1.16Selman’s Five Levels of Perspective Taking
11.1.17Biological Basis of Social Cognition
11.1.18Evaluation of Biological Basis of Social Cognition
11.1.19Important Issues in Social Neuroscience
11.1.20End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 3
11.1.21Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Cognition & Development
12Option 2: Schizophrenia (A2 only)
12.1Schizophrenia: Diagnosis (A2 only)
12.2Schizophrenia: Treatment (A2 only)
12.2.1Family-Based Psychological Explanations
12.2.2Evaluation of Family-Based Explanations
12.2.3Cognitive Explanations
12.2.4Drug Therapies
12.2.5Evaluation of Drug Therapies
12.2.6Biological Explanations for Schizophrenia
12.2.7Dopamine Hypothesis
12.2.8End of Topic Test - Schizoprenia Treatment 1
12.2.9Psychological Therapies 1
12.2.10Psychological Therapies 2
12.2.11Evaluation of Psychological Therapies
12.2.12Interactionist Approach - Diathesis-Stress Model
12.2.13Interactionist Approach - Triggers & Treatment
12.2.14Evaluation of the Interactionist Approach
12.2.15End of Topic Test - Scizophrenia Treatments 2
13Option 2: Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
13.1Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
13.1.1Explanations for Food Preferences
13.1.2Birch et al (1987) & Lowe et al (2004)
13.1.3Control of Eating Behaviours
13.1.4Control of Eating Behaviour: Leptin
13.1.5Biological Explanations for Anorexia Nervosa
13.1.6Psychological Explanations: Family Systems Theory
13.1.7Psychological Explanations: Social Learning Theory
13.1.8Psychological Explanations: Cognitive Theory
13.1.9Biological Explanations for Obesity
13.1.10Biological Explanations: Studies
13.1.11Psychological Explanations for Obesity
13.1.12Psychological Explanations: Studies
13.1.13End of Topic Test - Eating Behaviour
14Option 2: Stress (A2 only)
14.1Stress (A2 only)
14.1.1Physiology of Stress
14.1.2Role of Stress in Illness
14.1.3Role of Stress in Illness: Studies
14.1.4Social Readjustment Rating Scales
14.1.5Hassles & Uplifts Scales
14.1.6Stress, Workload & Control
14.1.7Stress Level Studies
14.1.8End of Topic Test - Stress 1
14.1.9Physiological Measures of Stress
14.1.10Individual Differences
14.1.11Stress & Gender
14.1.12Drug Therapy & Biofeedback for Stress
14.1.13Stress Inoculation Therapy
14.1.14Social Support & Stress
14.1.15End of Topic Test - Stress 2
15Option 3: Aggression (A2 only)
15.1Aggression: Physiological (A2 only)
15.1.1Neural Mechanisms
15.1.2Serotonin
15.1.3Hormonal Mechanisms
15.1.4Genetic Factors
15.1.5Genetic Factors 2
15.1.6End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 1
15.1.7Ethological Explanation
15.1.8Innate Releasing Mechanisms & Fixed Action Pattern
15.1.9Evolutionary Explanations
15.1.10Buss et al (1992) - Sex Differences in Jealousy
15.1.11Evaluation of Evolutionary Explanations
15.1.12End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 2
15.2Aggression: Social Psychological (A2 only)
15.2.1Social Psychological Explanation
15.2.2Buss (1963) - Frustration/Aggression
15.2.3Social Psychological Explanation 2
15.2.4Social Learning Theory (SLT) 1
15.2.5Social Learning Theory (SLT) 2
15.2.6Limitations of Social Learning Theory (SLT)
15.2.7Deindividuation
15.2.8Deindividuation 2
15.2.9Deindividuation - Diener et al (1976)
15.2.10End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology
15.2.11Institutional Aggression: Prisons
15.2.12Evaluation of Dispositional & Situational
15.2.13Influence of Computer Games
15.2.14Influence of Television
15.2.15Evaluation of Studies on Media
15.2.16Desensitisation & Disinhibition
15.2.17Cognitive Priming
15.2.18End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology
16Option 3: Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
16.1Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
16.1.1Defining Crime
16.1.2Measuring Crime
16.1.3Offender Profiling
16.1.4Evaluation of Offender Profiling
16.1.5John Duffy Case Study
16.1.6Biological Explanations 1
16.1.7Biological Explanations 2
16.1.8Evaluation of the Biological Explanation
16.1.9Cognitive Explanations
16.1.10Moral Reasoning
16.1.11Psychodynamic Explanation 1
16.1.12Psychodynamic Explanation 2
16.1.13End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 1
16.1.14Differential Association Theory
16.1.15Custodial Sentencing
16.1.16Effects of Prison
16.1.17Evaluation of the Effects of Prison
16.1.18Recidivism
16.1.19Behavioural Treatments & Therapies
16.1.20Effectiveness of Behavioural Treatments
16.1.21Restorative Justice
16.1.22End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 2
17Option 3: Addiction (A2 only)
17.1Addiction (A2 only)
17.1.1Definition
17.1.2Brain Neurochemistry Explanation
17.1.3Learning Theory Explanation
17.1.4Evaluation of a Learning Theory Explanation
17.1.5Cognitive Bias
17.1.6Griffiths on Cognitive Bias
17.1.7Evaluation of Cognitive Theory (A2 only)
17.1.8End of Topic Test - Addiction 1
17.1.9Gambling Addiction & Learning Theory
17.1.10Social Influences on Addiction 1
17.1.11Social Influences on Addiction 2
17.1.12Personal Influences on Addiction
17.1.13Genetic Explanations of Addiction
17.1.14End of Topic Test - Addiction 2
Jump to other topics
1Social Influence
1.1Social Influence
1.1.1Conformity
1.1.2Asch (1951)
1.1.3Sherif (1935)
1.1.4Conformity to Social Roles
1.1.5BBC Prison Study
1.1.6End of Topic Test - Conformity
1.1.7Obedience
1.1.8Analysing Milgram's Experiment
1.1.9Agentic State & Legitimate Authority
1.1.10Variables of Obedience
1.1.11Resistance to Social Influence
1.1.12Minority Influence & Social Change
1.1.13Minority Influence & Social Impact Theory
1.1.14End of Topic Test - Social Influences
1.1.15Exam-Style Question - Conformity
1.1.16Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Social Influence
2Memory
2.1Memory
2.1.1Multi-Store Model of Memory
2.1.2Short-Term vs Long-Term Memory
2.1.3Long-Term Memory
2.1.4Support for the Multi-Store Model of Memory
2.1.5Duration Studies
2.1.6Capacity Studies
2.1.7Coding Studies
2.1.8The Working Memory Model
2.1.9The Working Memory Model 2
2.1.10Support for the Working Memory Model
2.1.11Explanations for Forgetting
2.1.12Studies on Interference
2.1.13Cue-Dependent Forgetting
2.1.14Eye Witness Testimony - Loftus & Palmer
2.1.15Eye Witness Testimony Loftus
2.1.16Eyewitness Testimony - Post-Event Discussion
2.1.17Eyewitness Testimony - Age & Misleading Questions
2.1.18Cognitive Interview
2.1.19Cognitive Interview - Geiselman & Fisher
2.1.20End of Topic Test - Memory
2.1.21Exam-Style Question - Memory
2.1.22A-A* (AO3/4) - Memory
3Attachment
3.1Attachment
3.1.1Caregiver-Infant Interaction
3.1.2Condon & Sander (1974)
3.1.3Schaffer & Emerson (1964)
3.1.4Multiple Attachments
3.1.5Studies on the Role of the Father
3.1.6Animal Studies of Attachment
3.1.7Explanations of Attachment
3.1.8Attachment Types - Strange Situation
3.1.9Cultural Differences in Attachment
3.1.10Disruption of Attachment
3.1.11Disruption of Attachment - Privation
3.1.12Overcoming the Effects of Disruption
3.1.13The Effects of Institutionalisation
3.1.14Early Attachment
3.1.15Critical Period of Attachment
3.1.16End of Topic Test - Attachment
3.1.17Exam-Style Question - Attachment
3.1.18Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Attachment
4Psychopathology
4.1Psychopathology
4.1.1Definitions of Abnormality
4.1.2Definitions of Abnormality 2
4.1.3Phobias, Depression & OCD
4.1.4Phobias: Behavioural Approach
4.1.5Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias
4.1.6Depression: Cognitive Approach
4.1.7OCD: Biological Approach
4.1.8Evidence for the Biological Approach
4.1.9End of Topic Test - Psychopathy
4.1.10Exam-Style Question - Phobias
4.1.11Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology
5Approaches in Psychology
5.1Approaches in Psychology
5.1.1Psychology as a Science
5.1.2Origins of Psychology
5.1.3Reductionism & Problems with Introspection
5.1.4The Behaviourist Approach - Classical Conditioning
5.1.5Pavlov's Experiment
5.1.6Little Albert Study
5.1.7The Behaviourist Approach - Operant Conditioning
5.1.8Social Learning Theory
5.1.9The Cognitive Approach 1
5.1.10The Cognitive Approach 2
5.1.11The Biological Approach
5.1.12Gottesman (1991) - Twin Studies
5.1.13Brain Scanning
5.1.14Structure of Personality & Little Hans
5.1.15The Psychodynamic Approach (A2 only)
5.1.16Humanistic Psychology (A2 only)
5.1.17Aronoff (1957) (A2 Only)
5.1.18Rogers' Client-Centred Therapy (A2 only)
5.1.19End of Topic Test - Approaches in Psychology
5.1.20Exam-Style Question - Approaches in Psychology
5.2Comparison of Approaches (A2 only)
6Biopsychology
6.1Biopsychology
6.1.1Nervous System Divisions
6.1.2Neuron Structure & Function
6.1.3Neurotransmitters
6.1.4Endocrine System Function
6.1.5Fight or Flight Response
6.1.6The Brain (A2 only)
6.1.7Localisation of Brain Function (A2 only)
6.1.8Studying the Brain (A2 only)
6.1.9CIMT (A2 Only) & Postmortem Examinations
6.1.10Biological Rhythms (A2 only)
6.1.11Studies on Biological Rhythms (A2 Only)
6.1.12End of Topic Test - Biopsychology
6.1.13Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Biopsychology
7Research Methods
7.1Research Methods
7.2Scientific Processes
7.2.1Aims, Hypotheses & Sampling
7.2.2Pilot Studies & Design
7.2.3Questionnaires
7.2.4Variables & Control
7.2.5Demand Characteristics & Investigator Effects
7.2.6Ethics
7.2.7Limitations of Ethical Guidelines
7.2.8Consent & Protection from Harm Studies
7.2.9Peer Review & The Economy
7.2.10Validity (A2 only)
7.2.11Reliability (A2 only)
7.2.12Features of Science (A2 only)
7.2.13Paradigms & Falsifiability (A2 only)
7.2.14Scientific Report (A2 only)
7.2.15Scientific Report 2 (A2 only)
7.2.16End of Topic Test - Scientific Processes
7.3Data Handling & Analysis
7.3.1Types of Data
7.3.2Descriptive Statistics
7.3.3Correlation
7.3.4Evaluation of Descriptive Statistics
7.3.5Presentation & Display of Data
7.3.6Levels of Measurement (A2 only)
7.3.7Content Analysis (A2 only)
7.3.8Case Studies (A2 only)
7.3.9Thematic Analysis (A2 only)
7.3.10End of Topic Test - Data Handling & Analysis
8Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
8.1Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
8.1.1Culture Bias
8.1.2Sub-Culture Bias
8.1.3Gender Bias
8.1.4Ethnocentrism
8.1.5Cross Cultural Research
8.1.6Free Will & Determinism
8.1.7Comparison of Free Will & Determinism
8.1.8Reductionism & Holism
8.1.9Reductionist & Holistic Approaches
8.1.10Nature-Nurture Debate
8.1.11Interactionist Approach
8.1.12Nature-Nurture Methods
8.1.13Nature-Nurture Approaches
8.1.14Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches
8.1.15Socially Sensitive Research
8.1.16End of Topic Test - Issues and Debates
9Option 1: Relationships (A2 only)
9.1Relationships: Sexual Relationships (A2 only)
9.1.1Sexual Selection & Human Reproductive Behaviour
9.1.2Intersexual & Intrasexual Selection
9.1.3Evaluation of Sexual Selection Behaviour
9.1.4Factors Affecting Attraction: Self-Disclosure
9.1.5Evaluation of Self-Disclosure Theory
9.1.6Self Disclosure in Computer Communication
9.1.7Factors Affecting Attraction: Physical Attributes
9.1.8Matching Hypothesis Studies
9.1.9Factors Affecting Physical Attraction
9.1.10Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 1
9.1.11Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 2
9.1.12Evaluation of Filter Theory
9.1.13End of Topic Test - Sexual Relationships
9.2Relationships: Romantic Relationships (A2 only)
9.2.1Social Exchange Theory
9.2.2Evaluation of Social Exchange Theory
9.2.3Equity Theory
9.2.4Evaluation of Equity Theory
9.2.5Rusbult’s Investment Model
9.2.6Evaluation of Rusbult's Investment Model
9.2.7Relationship Breakdown
9.2.8Studies on Relationship Breakdown
9.2.9Evaluation of Relationship Breakdown
9.2.10End of Topic Test - Romantic relationships
9.3Relationships: Virtual & Parasocial (A2 only)
10Option 1: Gender (A2 only)
10.1Gender (A2 only)
10.1.1Sex, Gender & Androgyny
10.1.2Gender Identity Disorder
10.1.3Biological & Social Explanations of GID
10.1.4Biological Influences on Gender
10.1.5Effects of Hormones on Gender
10.1.6End of Topic Test - Gender 1
10.1.7Kohlberg’s Theory of Gender Constancy
10.1.8Evaluation of Kohlberg's Theory
10.1.9Gender Schema Theory
10.1.10Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 1
10.1.11Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 2
10.1.12Social Approach to Gender Development
10.1.13Criticisms of Social Theory
10.1.14End of Topic Test - Gender 2
10.1.15Media Influence on Gender Development
10.1.16Cross Cultural Research
10.1.17Childcare & Gender Roles
10.1.18End of Topic Test - Gender 3
11Option 1: Cognition & Development (A2 only)
11.1Cognition & Development (A2 only)
11.1.1Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 1
11.1.2Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 2
11.1.3Schema Accommodation Assimilation & Equilibration
11.1.4Piaget & Inhelder’s Three Mountains Task (1956)
11.1.5Conservation & Class Inclusion
11.1.6Evaluation of Piaget
11.1.7End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 1
11.1.8Vygotsky
11.1.9Evaluation of Vygotsky
11.1.10Baillargeon
11.1.11Baillargeon's studies
11.1.12Evaluation of Baillargeon
11.1.13End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 2
11.1.14Sense of Self & Theory of Mind
11.1.15Baron-Cohen Studies
11.1.16Selman’s Five Levels of Perspective Taking
11.1.17Biological Basis of Social Cognition
11.1.18Evaluation of Biological Basis of Social Cognition
11.1.19Important Issues in Social Neuroscience
11.1.20End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 3
11.1.21Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Cognition & Development
12Option 2: Schizophrenia (A2 only)
12.1Schizophrenia: Diagnosis (A2 only)
12.2Schizophrenia: Treatment (A2 only)
12.2.1Family-Based Psychological Explanations
12.2.2Evaluation of Family-Based Explanations
12.2.3Cognitive Explanations
12.2.4Drug Therapies
12.2.5Evaluation of Drug Therapies
12.2.6Biological Explanations for Schizophrenia
12.2.7Dopamine Hypothesis
12.2.8End of Topic Test - Schizoprenia Treatment 1
12.2.9Psychological Therapies 1
12.2.10Psychological Therapies 2
12.2.11Evaluation of Psychological Therapies
12.2.12Interactionist Approach - Diathesis-Stress Model
12.2.13Interactionist Approach - Triggers & Treatment
12.2.14Evaluation of the Interactionist Approach
12.2.15End of Topic Test - Scizophrenia Treatments 2
13Option 2: Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
13.1Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
13.1.1Explanations for Food Preferences
13.1.2Birch et al (1987) & Lowe et al (2004)
13.1.3Control of Eating Behaviours
13.1.4Control of Eating Behaviour: Leptin
13.1.5Biological Explanations for Anorexia Nervosa
13.1.6Psychological Explanations: Family Systems Theory
13.1.7Psychological Explanations: Social Learning Theory
13.1.8Psychological Explanations: Cognitive Theory
13.1.9Biological Explanations for Obesity
13.1.10Biological Explanations: Studies
13.1.11Psychological Explanations for Obesity
13.1.12Psychological Explanations: Studies
13.1.13End of Topic Test - Eating Behaviour
14Option 2: Stress (A2 only)
14.1Stress (A2 only)
14.1.1Physiology of Stress
14.1.2Role of Stress in Illness
14.1.3Role of Stress in Illness: Studies
14.1.4Social Readjustment Rating Scales
14.1.5Hassles & Uplifts Scales
14.1.6Stress, Workload & Control
14.1.7Stress Level Studies
14.1.8End of Topic Test - Stress 1
14.1.9Physiological Measures of Stress
14.1.10Individual Differences
14.1.11Stress & Gender
14.1.12Drug Therapy & Biofeedback for Stress
14.1.13Stress Inoculation Therapy
14.1.14Social Support & Stress
14.1.15End of Topic Test - Stress 2
15Option 3: Aggression (A2 only)
15.1Aggression: Physiological (A2 only)
15.1.1Neural Mechanisms
15.1.2Serotonin
15.1.3Hormonal Mechanisms
15.1.4Genetic Factors
15.1.5Genetic Factors 2
15.1.6End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 1
15.1.7Ethological Explanation
15.1.8Innate Releasing Mechanisms & Fixed Action Pattern
15.1.9Evolutionary Explanations
15.1.10Buss et al (1992) - Sex Differences in Jealousy
15.1.11Evaluation of Evolutionary Explanations
15.1.12End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 2
15.2Aggression: Social Psychological (A2 only)
15.2.1Social Psychological Explanation
15.2.2Buss (1963) - Frustration/Aggression
15.2.3Social Psychological Explanation 2
15.2.4Social Learning Theory (SLT) 1
15.2.5Social Learning Theory (SLT) 2
15.2.6Limitations of Social Learning Theory (SLT)
15.2.7Deindividuation
15.2.8Deindividuation 2
15.2.9Deindividuation - Diener et al (1976)
15.2.10End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology
15.2.11Institutional Aggression: Prisons
15.2.12Evaluation of Dispositional & Situational
15.2.13Influence of Computer Games
15.2.14Influence of Television
15.2.15Evaluation of Studies on Media
15.2.16Desensitisation & Disinhibition
15.2.17Cognitive Priming
15.2.18End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology
16Option 3: Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
16.1Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
16.1.1Defining Crime
16.1.2Measuring Crime
16.1.3Offender Profiling
16.1.4Evaluation of Offender Profiling
16.1.5John Duffy Case Study
16.1.6Biological Explanations 1
16.1.7Biological Explanations 2
16.1.8Evaluation of the Biological Explanation
16.1.9Cognitive Explanations
16.1.10Moral Reasoning
16.1.11Psychodynamic Explanation 1
16.1.12Psychodynamic Explanation 2
16.1.13End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 1
16.1.14Differential Association Theory
16.1.15Custodial Sentencing
16.1.16Effects of Prison
16.1.17Evaluation of the Effects of Prison
16.1.18Recidivism
16.1.19Behavioural Treatments & Therapies
16.1.20Effectiveness of Behavioural Treatments
16.1.21Restorative Justice
16.1.22End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 2
17Option 3: Addiction (A2 only)
17.1Addiction (A2 only)
17.1.1Definition
17.1.2Brain Neurochemistry Explanation
17.1.3Learning Theory Explanation
17.1.4Evaluation of a Learning Theory Explanation
17.1.5Cognitive Bias
17.1.6Griffiths on Cognitive Bias
17.1.7Evaluation of Cognitive Theory (A2 only)
17.1.8End of Topic Test - Addiction 1
17.1.9Gambling Addiction & Learning Theory
17.1.10Social Influences on Addiction 1
17.1.11Social Influences on Addiction 2
17.1.12Personal Influences on Addiction
17.1.13Genetic Explanations of Addiction
17.1.14End of Topic Test - Addiction 2
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