Features of Science (A2 only)

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Objectivity and the Empirical Method

Objectivity is based on facts/data/results and not on opinions or beliefs. To make sure there is objectivity, the scientific process (empirical method) is followed.

Psychology and objectivity

Psychology is a science and so follows a set of guidelines to make sure that results are objective rather than subjective.
Objectivity is based on fact and data and avoids bias.
To make sure there is complete objectivity, quantifiable numbers are best to use.

Extraneous variables

Experiments should be set up to have control variables to reduce the chance of extraneous variables.
Extraneous variables can affect the results of a study, making it less reliable or valid.
- For example, a study on short-term memory should have quantities like time or number of facts recalled.

Research questions

The scientific process (empirical method) is well established in the realm of science.
Researchers, whether in chemistry, health care or psychology, all follow the same basic pattern, examined in the next module.

Empirical Method

The scientific process (empirical method) is well established in the scientific realm. Researchers, whether in chemistry, health care or psychology, all follow the same basic pattern.

Ask a question

What observable phenomenon is the researcher interested in?
- Formulate a question around that phenomenon - usually to explain why or how based.
  - Example: what effect does caffeine have on aggression in teenagers?

Form a theory

A theory is made based around existing knowledge, as well as the researcher's questions.
- Example: caffeine elevates heart rates, so could lead to more aggressive behaviours. Caffeine could potentially have a greater effect on the developing adolescent mind.

Make a prediction/hypothesis

This is a precise testable statement based on the question the researcher had.
- Example: a high dose of caffeine in 18-year-olds will correlate with aggressive behaviours.

Carry out experiment/test/study

The experiment must have a standard procedure to follow, with controls to allow for validity and reliability.
The results of the study will provide evidence for the researcher’s theory.
- Example: controls for the caffeine experiment would include the age/weight/fitness level of the participants and the dosage of caffeine.
- The evidence (hypothetically) could see no difference in aggression.

Adjust theory

The hypothesis can be accepted or rejected based on evidence.
If the hypothesis is rejected, the researcher’s theory would be altered.
- Example: as there was no evidence of aggressive behaviour after caffeine, the theory should change to reflect that.

Peer review is the process whereby researcher’s findings are looked over by other scientists. A study has replicability if results are the same when it is repeated with the same experimental conditions.

Publishing

Peer review is done to make sure that published results are accurate, honest, reliable and valid.
Once an experiment has been carried out and the evidence has been analysed, researchers will publish their findings in scientific journals.
But before the paper can be published, the findings must be peer-reviewed.

Expert review

Peer review involves other experts within the field analysing the data and making sure that the results are valid, reliable and true.
Occasionally, researchers may not be quite honest and embellish their data and draw inaccurate conclusions.
Peer review makes sure that these results will not be published.

Establishing fact

Once the trustworthy results are published, other scientists can then use these findings to further their own research.
All of the data collected by all of the research done can build a body of knowledge that is accepted as reliable fact.

Replicability

Once a study has been peer reviewed and published in a scientific journal, other scientists have the opportunities to do replicate studies.
If a study is repeated with the same experimental conditions and produces the same results, it is said to have replicability.
Doing repeats of a study allows scientists to verify the findings of another researcher.

New predictions

Replicate studies, done in the exact same conditions, are done to verify the results.
From there, the theory can be developed and new predictions can be made.
From the new predictions, new experiments can be set up.

Testing hypotheses

Sometimes, the results of a new experiment conflict with old evidence. So the testing is replicated to see which set of results (and so which theory) is correct.
These theories can be tested continually, allowing a body of evidence that supports the theory to grow.
But sometimes, new breakthroughs can happen, adjusting existing theories, and the process starts over again.