13.2.6
Biological Explanations for Schizophrenia
Biological Explanations: Genetics & Family Studies
Biological Explanations: Genetics & Family Studies
Biological explanations have received the most research support to date (Comer, 2013). In particular, the role of genetics and neural correlates such as dopamine.
‘Diathesis-stress’ relationship
‘Diathesis-stress’ relationship
- The importance of biological explanations for schizophrenia does not deny the importance of psychological factors that play in the onset of this disorder.
- Current thinking is that a ‘diathesis-stress’ relationship may be at work, with a biological predisposition for schizophrenia only developing into the disorder if other significant psychological stressors are present in a person’s life.
Genetic factors
Genetic factors
- One possible explanation of schizophrenia may be heredity i.e. genetics.
- Schizophrenia tends to run in families, but only among individuals who are genetically related rather than related by marriage. The risk of developing the disorder among individuals who have family members with schizophrenia is higher than it is for those who do not.
Combination of genes
Combination of genes
- No one gene is thought to be responsible for this disorder – it’s more likely that different combinations of genes make individuals more vulnerable to schizophrenia. Having these genes does not necessarily mean an individual will develop schizophrenia.
Family studies
Family studies
- Family studies (Gottesman and Shields, 1991) find individuals who have schizophrenia and determine whether their biological relatives are similarly affected more often than non-biological relatives.
- Family studies have established that schizophrenia is more common among biological relatives of a person with schizophrenia, and that the closer the degree of genetic relatedness, the greater the risk.
Gottesman and Shield
Gottesman and Shield
- For example, in Gottesman and Shield’s study, children with two schizophrenic parents had a concordance rate of 46%, children with one schizophrenic parent a rate of 13% and siblings (where a brother or sister had schizophrenia) a concordance rate of 9%.
Biological Explanations: Twin & Adoption Studies
Biological Explanations: Twin & Adoption Studies
Biological explanations have received the most research support to date (Comer, 2013), in particular the role of genetics and neural correlates such as dopamine.
Twin studies
Twin studies
- If monozygotic (MZ – genetically identical) twins are more concordant than dizygotic (DZ – who share only 50% of their genes), then this suggests that the greater similarity is due to genetic factors.
- Joseph (2004) calculated that the pooled data for all schizophrenia twin studies carried out prior to 2001 showed a concordance rate for MZ twins of 40.4% and 7.4% for DZ twins.
Lower concordance rate for MZ twins
Lower concordance rate for MZ twins
- More recently, methodologically sound studies (e.g. those using ‘blind’ diagnoses where the researchers assessing do not know whether the twins are MZ or DZ) have tended to report a lower concordance rate for MZ twins than earlier studies.
- Despite this, however, such studies still support the genetic position because they show a concordance rate for MZ twins that is many times higher than for DZ twins.
Adoption studies
Adoption studies
- Because of the difficulties of disentangling genetic and environmental influences for individuals who share genes and environment, studies of genetically related individuals who have been reared apart are used.
Tienari et al (2000)
Tienari et al (2000)
- Probably the most methodologically sound study of this type was carried out by Tienari et al (2000) in Finland.
- Of the 164 adoptees whose biological mothers had been diagnosed with schizophrenia, 11 (6.7%) also received a diagnosis of schizophrenia, compared to just 4 (2%) of the 197 controls adoptees (those born to non-schizophrenic mothers). The investigators concluded that these findings showed that the genetic liability to schizophrenia had been ‘decisively confirmed.’
Evaluation of biological explanations
Evaluation of biological explanations
- Strengths
- There is overwhelming evidence to suggest that genetic factors make some people much more vulnerable to developing the disorder than others.
- Limitations
- Could be explained by common family backgrounds and experiences rather than genetics (nature/nurture).
- MZ twins treated more similarly than DZ twins.
- Adoptees may be selectively placed with families.
1Social Influence
1.1Social Influence
1.1.1Conformity
1.1.2Asch (1951)
1.1.3Sherif (1935)
1.1.4Conformity to Social Roles
1.1.5BBC Prison Study
1.1.6End of Topic Test - Conformity
1.1.7Obedience
1.1.8Analysing Milgram's Experiment
1.1.9Agentic State & Legitimate Authority
1.1.10Variables of Obedience
1.1.11Resistance to Social Influence
1.1.12Minority Influence & Social Change
1.1.13Minority Influence & Social Impact Theory
1.1.14End of Topic Test - Social Influences
1.1.15Exam-Style Question - Conformity
1.1.16Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Social Influence
2Memory
2.1Memory
2.1.1Multi-Store Model of Memory
2.1.2Short-Term vs Long-Term Memory
2.1.3Long-Term Memory
2.1.4Support for the Multi-Store Model of Memory
2.1.5Duration Studies
2.1.6Capacity Studies
2.1.7Coding Studies
2.1.8The Working Memory Model
2.1.9The Working Memory Model 2
2.1.10Support for the Working Memory Model
2.1.11Explanations for Forgetting
2.1.12Studies on Interference
2.1.13Cue-Dependent Forgetting
2.1.14Eye Witness Testimony - Loftus & Palmer
2.1.15Eye Witness Testimony Loftus
2.1.16Eyewitness Testimony - Post-Event Discussion
2.1.17Eyewitness Testimony - Age & Misleading Questions
2.1.18Cognitive Interview
2.1.19Cognitive Interview - Geiselman & Fisher
2.1.20End of Topic Test - Memory
2.1.21Exam-Style Question - Memory
2.1.22A-A* (AO3/4) - Memory
3Attachment
3.1Attachment
3.1.1Caregiver-Infant Interaction
3.1.2Condon & Sander (1974)
3.1.3Schaffer & Emerson (1964)
3.1.4Multiple Attachments
3.1.5Studies on the Role of the Father
3.1.6Animal Studies of Attachment
3.1.7Explanations of Attachment
3.1.8Attachment Types - Strange Situation
3.1.9Cultural Differences in Attachment
3.1.10Disruption of Attachment
3.1.11Disruption of Attachment - Privation
3.1.12Overcoming the Effects of Disruption
3.1.13The Effects of Institutionalisation
3.1.14Early Attachment
3.1.15Critical Period of Attachment
3.1.16End of Topic Test - Attachment
3.1.17Exam-Style Question - Attachment
3.1.18Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Attachment
4(2026 Exams) Psychopathology
4.1Psychopathology
4.1.1Abnormality
4.1.2Abnormality 2
4.1.3Phobias, Depression & OCD
4.1.4Phobias: Behavioural Approach
4.1.5Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias
4.1.6Depression: Cognitive Approach
4.1.7OCD: Biological Approach
4.1.8Evidence for the Biological Approach
4.1.9End of Topic Test - Psychopathy
4.1.10Exam-Style Question - Phobias
4.1.11Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology
4.1.12Diagnostic Misconceptions - Phobia vs Fear
4.1.13Diagnostic Misconceptions - Depression & Self-Harm
4.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Desensitisation
5Approaches in Psychology
5.1Approaches in Psychology
5.1.1Psychology as a Science
5.1.2Origins of Psychology
5.1.3Reductionism & Problems with Introspection
5.1.4The Behaviourist Approach - Classical Conditioning
5.1.5Pavlov's Experiment
5.1.6Little Albert Study
5.1.7The Behaviourist Approach - Operant Conditioning
5.1.8Social Learning Theory
5.1.9The Cognitive Approach 1
5.1.10The Cognitive Approach 2
5.1.11The Biological Approach
5.1.12Gottesman (1991) - Twin Studies
5.1.13Brain Scanning
5.1.14Structure of Personality & Little Hans
5.1.15The Psychodynamic Approach (A2 only)
5.1.16Humanistic Psychology (A2 only)
5.1.17Aronoff (1957) (A2 Only)
5.1.18Rogers' Client-Centred Therapy (A2 only)
5.1.19End of Topic Test - Approaches in Psychology
5.1.20Exam-Style Question - Approaches in Psychology
5.2Comparison of Approaches (A2 only)
6Biopsychology
6.1Biopsychology
6.1.1Nervous System Divisions
6.1.2Neuron Structure & Function
6.1.3Neurotransmitters
6.1.4Endocrine System Function
6.1.5Fight or Flight Response
6.1.6The Brain (A2 only)
6.1.7Localisation of Brain Function (A2 only)
6.1.8Studying the Brain (A2 only)
6.1.9CIMT (A2 Only) & Postmortem Examinations
6.1.10Biological Rhythms (A2 only)
6.1.11Studies on Biological Rhythms (A2 Only)
6.1.12End of Topic Test - Biopsychology
6.1.13Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Biopsychology
6.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Plasticity & Recovery
6.1.15Diagnostic Misconceptions - Endogenous Pacemakers
7(2027 Exams) Clinical Psychology & Mental Health
7.1Clinical Psychology & Mental Health
7.1.1Deviation from Social Norms
7.1.2Deviation from Social Norms 2
7.1.3Phobias, Depression & OCD
7.1.4Phobias: Behavioural Approach
7.1.5Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias
7.1.6Depression: Cognitive Approach
7.1.7OCD: Biological Approach
7.1.8Evidence for the Biological Approach
7.1.9End of Topic Test - Psychopathy
7.1.10Exam-Style Question - Phobias
7.1.11Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology
7.1.12Diagnostic Misconceptions - Phobia vs Fear
7.1.13Diagnostic Misconceptions - Depression & Self-Harm
7.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Desensitisation
8Research Methods
8.1Research Methods
8.1.1Experimental Method
8.1.2Observational Techniques
8.1.3Covert, Overt & Controlled Observation
8.1.4Self-Report Techniques
8.1.5Correlations
8.1.6Exam-Style Question - Research Methods
8.1.7End of Topic Test - Research Methods
8.1.8Diagnostic Misconceptions - Sign Test
8.1.9Diagnostic Misconceptions - Content & Thematic
8.1.10Diagnostic Misconceptions - Valid vs Reliable
8.1.11Diagnostic Misconceptions - Confounding Variable
8.2Scientific Processes
8.2.1Aims, Hypotheses & Sampling
8.2.2Pilot Studies & Design
8.2.3Questionnaires
8.2.4Variables & Control
8.2.5Demand Characteristics & Investigator Effects
8.2.6Ethics
8.2.7Limitations of Ethical Guidelines
8.2.8Consent & Protection from Harm Studies
8.2.9Peer Review & The Economy
8.2.10Validity (A2 only)
8.2.11Reliability (A2 only)
8.2.12Features of Science (A2 only)
8.2.13Paradigms & Falsifiability (A2 only)
8.2.14Scientific Report (A2 only)
8.2.15Scientific Report 2 (A2 only)
8.2.16End of Topic Test - Scientific Processes
8.3Data Handling & Analysis
8.3.1Types of Data
8.3.2Descriptive Statistics
8.3.3Correlation
8.3.4Evaluation of Descriptive Statistics
8.3.5Presentation & Display of Data
8.3.6Levels of Measurement (A2 only)
8.3.7Content Analysis (A2 only)
8.3.8Case Studies (A2 only)
8.3.9Thematic Analysis (A2 only)
8.3.10End of Topic Test - Data Handling & Analysis
9Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
9.1Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
9.1.1Culture Bias
9.1.2Sub-Culture Bias
9.1.3Gender Bias
9.1.4Ethnocentrism
9.1.5Cross Cultural Research
9.1.6Free Will & Determinism
9.1.7Comparison of Free Will & Determinism
9.1.8Reductionism & Holism
9.1.9Reductionist & Holistic Approaches
9.1.10Nature-Nurture Debate
9.1.11Interactionist Approach
9.1.12Nature-Nurture Methods
9.1.13Nature-Nurture Approaches
9.1.14Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches
9.1.15Socially Sensitive Research
9.1.16End of Topic Test - Issues and Debates
10Option 1: Relationships (A2 only)
10.1Relationships: Sexual Relationships (A2 only)
10.1.1Sexual Selection & Human Reproductive Behaviour
10.1.2Intersexual & Intrasexual Selection
10.1.3Evaluation of Sexual Selection Behaviour
10.1.4Factors Affecting Attraction: Self-Disclosure
10.1.5Evaluation of Self-Disclosure Theory
10.1.6Self Disclosure in Computer Communication
10.1.7Factors Affecting Attraction: Physical Attributes
10.1.8Matching Hypothesis Studies
10.1.9Factors Affecting Physical Attraction
10.1.10Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 1
10.1.11Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 2
10.1.12Evaluation of Filter Theory
10.1.13End of Topic Test - Sexual Relationships
10.2Relationships: Romantic Relationships (A2 only)
10.2.1Social Exchange Theory
10.2.2Evaluation of Social Exchange Theory
10.2.3Equity Theory
10.2.4Evaluation of Equity Theory
10.2.5Rusbult’s Investment Model
10.2.6Evaluation of Rusbult's Investment Model
10.2.7Relationship Breakdown
10.2.8Studies on Relationship Breakdown
10.2.9Evaluation of Relationship Breakdown
10.2.10End of Topic Test - Romantic relationships
10.3Relationships: Virtual & Parasocial (A2 only)
11Option 1: Gender (A2 only)
11.1Gender (A2 only)
11.1.1Sex, Gender & Androgyny
11.1.2Gender Identity Disorder
11.1.3Biological & Social Explanations of GID
11.1.4Biological Influences on Gender
11.1.5Effects of Hormones on Gender
11.1.6End of Topic Test - Gender 1
11.1.7Kohlberg’s Theory of Gender Constancy
11.1.8Evaluation of Kohlberg's Theory
11.1.9Gender Schema Theory
11.1.10Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 1
11.1.11Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 2
11.1.12Social Approach to Gender Development
11.1.13Criticisms of Social Theory
11.1.14End of Topic Test - Gender 2
11.1.15Media Influence on Gender Development
11.1.16Cross Cultural Research
11.1.17Childcare & Gender Roles
11.1.18End of Topic Test - Gender 3
12Option 1: Cognition & Development (A2 only)
12.1Cognition & Development (A2 only)
12.1.1Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 1
12.1.2Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 2
12.1.3Schema Accommodation Assimilation & Equilibration
12.1.4Piaget & Inhelder’s Three Mountains Task (1956)
12.1.5Conservation & Class Inclusion
12.1.6Evaluation of Piaget
12.1.7End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 1
12.1.8Vygotsky
12.1.9Evaluation of Vygotsky
12.1.10Baillargeon
12.1.11Baillargeon's studies
12.1.12Evaluation of Baillargeon
12.1.13End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 2
12.1.14Sense of Self & Theory of Mind
12.1.15Baron-Cohen Studies
12.1.16Selman’s Five Levels of Perspective Taking
12.1.17Biological Basis of Social Cognition
12.1.18Evaluation of Biological Basis of Social Cognition
12.1.19Important Issues in Social Neuroscience
12.1.20End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 3
12.1.21Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Cognition & Development
13Option 2: Schizophrenia (A2 only)
13.1Schizophrenia: Diagnosis (A2 only)
13.2Schizophrenia: Treatment (A2 only)
13.2.1Family-Based Psychological Explanations
13.2.2Evaluation of Family-Based Explanations
13.2.3Cognitive Explanations
13.2.4Drug Therapies
13.2.5Evaluation of Drug Therapies
13.2.6Biological Explanations for Schizophrenia
13.2.7Dopamine Hypothesis
13.2.8End of Topic Test - Schizoprenia Treatment 1
13.2.9Psychological Therapies 1
13.2.10Psychological Therapies 2
13.2.11Evaluation of Psychological Therapies
13.2.12Interactionist Approach - Diathesis-Stress Model
13.2.13Interactionist Approach - Triggers & Treatment
13.2.14Evaluation of the Interactionist Approach
13.2.15End of Topic Test - Scizophrenia Treatments 2
13.2.16Diagnostic Misconceptions - CBT & CBTp
14Option 2: Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
14.1Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
14.1.1Explanations for Food Preferences
14.1.2Birch et al (1987) & Lowe et al (2004)
14.1.3Control of Eating Behaviours
14.1.4Control of Eating Behaviour: Leptin
14.1.5Biological Explanations for Anorexia Nervosa
14.1.6Psychological Explanations: Family Systems Theory
14.1.7Psychological Explanations: Social Learning Theory
14.1.8Psychological Explanations: Cognitive Theory
14.1.9Biological Explanations for Obesity
14.1.10Biological Explanations: Studies
14.1.11Psychological Explanations for Obesity
14.1.12Psychological Explanations: Studies
14.1.13End of Topic Test - Eating Behaviour
15Option 2: Stress (A2 only)
15.1Stress (A2 only)
15.1.1Physiology of Stress
15.1.2Role of Stress in Illness
15.1.3Role of Stress in Illness: Studies
15.1.4Social Readjustment Rating Scales
15.1.5Hassles & Uplifts Scales
15.1.6Stress, Workload & Control
15.1.7Stress Level Studies
15.1.8End of Topic Test - Stress 1
15.1.9Physiological Measures of Stress
15.1.10Individual Differences
15.1.11Stress & Gender
15.1.12Drug Therapy & Biofeedback for Stress
15.1.13Stress Inoculation Therapy
15.1.14Social Support & Stress
15.1.15End of Topic Test - Stress 2
16Option 3: Aggression (A2 only)
16.1Aggression: Physiological (A2 only)
16.1.1Neural Mechanisms
16.1.2Serotonin
16.1.3Hormonal Mechanisms
16.1.4Genetic Factors
16.1.5Genetic Factors 2
16.1.6End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 1
16.1.7Ethological Explanation
16.1.8Innate Releasing Mechanisms & Fixed Action Pattern
16.1.9Evolutionary Explanations
16.1.10Buss et al (1992) - Sex Differences in Jealousy
16.1.11Evaluation of Evolutionary Explanations
16.1.12End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 2
16.2Aggression: Social Psychological (A2 only)
16.2.1Social Psychological Explanation
16.2.2Buss (1963) - Frustration/Aggression
16.2.3Social Psychological Explanation 2
16.2.4Social Learning Theory (SLT) 1
16.2.5Social Learning Theory (SLT) 2
16.2.6Limitations of Social Learning Theory (SLT)
16.2.7Deindividuation
16.2.8Deindividuation 2
16.2.9Deindividuation - Diener et al (1976)
16.2.10End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology
16.2.11Institutional Aggression: Prisons
16.2.12Evaluation of Dispositional & Situational
16.2.13Influence of Computer Games
16.2.14Influence of Television
16.2.15Evaluation of Studies on Media
16.2.16Desensitisation & Disinhibition
16.2.17Cognitive Priming
16.2.18End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology
17Option 3: Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
17.1Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
17.1.1Defining Crime
17.1.2Measuring Crime
17.1.3Offender Profiling
17.1.4Evaluation of Offender Profiling
17.1.5John Duffy Case Study
17.1.6Biological Explanations 1
17.1.7Biological Explanations 2
17.1.8Evaluation of the Biological Explanation
17.1.9Cognitive Explanations
17.1.10Moral Reasoning
17.1.11Psychodynamic Explanation 1
17.1.12Psychodynamic Explanation 2
17.1.13End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 1
17.1.14Differential Association Theory
17.1.15Custodial Sentencing
17.1.16Effects of Prison
17.1.17Evaluation of the Effects of Prison
17.1.18Recidivism
17.1.19Behavioural Treatments & Therapies
17.1.20Effectiveness of Behavioural Treatments
17.1.21Restorative Justice
17.1.22End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 2
18Option 3: Addiction (A2 only)
18.1Addiction (A2 only)
18.1.1Definition
18.1.2Brain Neurochemistry Explanation
18.1.3Learning Theory Explanation
18.1.4Evaluation of a Learning Theory Explanation
18.1.5Cognitive Bias
18.1.6Griffiths on Cognitive Bias
18.1.7Evaluation of Cognitive Theory (A2 only)
18.1.8End of Topic Test - Addiction 1
18.1.9Gambling Addiction & Learning Theory
18.1.10Social Influences on Addiction 1
18.1.11Social Influences on Addiction 2
18.1.12Personal Influences on Addiction
18.1.13Genetic Explanations of Addiction
18.1.14End of Topic Test - Addiction 2
Jump to other topics
1Social Influence
1.1Social Influence
1.1.1Conformity
1.1.2Asch (1951)
1.1.3Sherif (1935)
1.1.4Conformity to Social Roles
1.1.5BBC Prison Study
1.1.6End of Topic Test - Conformity
1.1.7Obedience
1.1.8Analysing Milgram's Experiment
1.1.9Agentic State & Legitimate Authority
1.1.10Variables of Obedience
1.1.11Resistance to Social Influence
1.1.12Minority Influence & Social Change
1.1.13Minority Influence & Social Impact Theory
1.1.14End of Topic Test - Social Influences
1.1.15Exam-Style Question - Conformity
1.1.16Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Social Influence
2Memory
2.1Memory
2.1.1Multi-Store Model of Memory
2.1.2Short-Term vs Long-Term Memory
2.1.3Long-Term Memory
2.1.4Support for the Multi-Store Model of Memory
2.1.5Duration Studies
2.1.6Capacity Studies
2.1.7Coding Studies
2.1.8The Working Memory Model
2.1.9The Working Memory Model 2
2.1.10Support for the Working Memory Model
2.1.11Explanations for Forgetting
2.1.12Studies on Interference
2.1.13Cue-Dependent Forgetting
2.1.14Eye Witness Testimony - Loftus & Palmer
2.1.15Eye Witness Testimony Loftus
2.1.16Eyewitness Testimony - Post-Event Discussion
2.1.17Eyewitness Testimony - Age & Misleading Questions
2.1.18Cognitive Interview
2.1.19Cognitive Interview - Geiselman & Fisher
2.1.20End of Topic Test - Memory
2.1.21Exam-Style Question - Memory
2.1.22A-A* (AO3/4) - Memory
3Attachment
3.1Attachment
3.1.1Caregiver-Infant Interaction
3.1.2Condon & Sander (1974)
3.1.3Schaffer & Emerson (1964)
3.1.4Multiple Attachments
3.1.5Studies on the Role of the Father
3.1.6Animal Studies of Attachment
3.1.7Explanations of Attachment
3.1.8Attachment Types - Strange Situation
3.1.9Cultural Differences in Attachment
3.1.10Disruption of Attachment
3.1.11Disruption of Attachment - Privation
3.1.12Overcoming the Effects of Disruption
3.1.13The Effects of Institutionalisation
3.1.14Early Attachment
3.1.15Critical Period of Attachment
3.1.16End of Topic Test - Attachment
3.1.17Exam-Style Question - Attachment
3.1.18Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Attachment
4(2026 Exams) Psychopathology
4.1Psychopathology
4.1.1Abnormality
4.1.2Abnormality 2
4.1.3Phobias, Depression & OCD
4.1.4Phobias: Behavioural Approach
4.1.5Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias
4.1.6Depression: Cognitive Approach
4.1.7OCD: Biological Approach
4.1.8Evidence for the Biological Approach
4.1.9End of Topic Test - Psychopathy
4.1.10Exam-Style Question - Phobias
4.1.11Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology
4.1.12Diagnostic Misconceptions - Phobia vs Fear
4.1.13Diagnostic Misconceptions - Depression & Self-Harm
4.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Desensitisation
5Approaches in Psychology
5.1Approaches in Psychology
5.1.1Psychology as a Science
5.1.2Origins of Psychology
5.1.3Reductionism & Problems with Introspection
5.1.4The Behaviourist Approach - Classical Conditioning
5.1.5Pavlov's Experiment
5.1.6Little Albert Study
5.1.7The Behaviourist Approach - Operant Conditioning
5.1.8Social Learning Theory
5.1.9The Cognitive Approach 1
5.1.10The Cognitive Approach 2
5.1.11The Biological Approach
5.1.12Gottesman (1991) - Twin Studies
5.1.13Brain Scanning
5.1.14Structure of Personality & Little Hans
5.1.15The Psychodynamic Approach (A2 only)
5.1.16Humanistic Psychology (A2 only)
5.1.17Aronoff (1957) (A2 Only)
5.1.18Rogers' Client-Centred Therapy (A2 only)
5.1.19End of Topic Test - Approaches in Psychology
5.1.20Exam-Style Question - Approaches in Psychology
5.2Comparison of Approaches (A2 only)
6Biopsychology
6.1Biopsychology
6.1.1Nervous System Divisions
6.1.2Neuron Structure & Function
6.1.3Neurotransmitters
6.1.4Endocrine System Function
6.1.5Fight or Flight Response
6.1.6The Brain (A2 only)
6.1.7Localisation of Brain Function (A2 only)
6.1.8Studying the Brain (A2 only)
6.1.9CIMT (A2 Only) & Postmortem Examinations
6.1.10Biological Rhythms (A2 only)
6.1.11Studies on Biological Rhythms (A2 Only)
6.1.12End of Topic Test - Biopsychology
6.1.13Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Biopsychology
6.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Plasticity & Recovery
6.1.15Diagnostic Misconceptions - Endogenous Pacemakers
7(2027 Exams) Clinical Psychology & Mental Health
7.1Clinical Psychology & Mental Health
7.1.1Deviation from Social Norms
7.1.2Deviation from Social Norms 2
7.1.3Phobias, Depression & OCD
7.1.4Phobias: Behavioural Approach
7.1.5Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias
7.1.6Depression: Cognitive Approach
7.1.7OCD: Biological Approach
7.1.8Evidence for the Biological Approach
7.1.9End of Topic Test - Psychopathy
7.1.10Exam-Style Question - Phobias
7.1.11Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology
7.1.12Diagnostic Misconceptions - Phobia vs Fear
7.1.13Diagnostic Misconceptions - Depression & Self-Harm
7.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Desensitisation
8Research Methods
8.1Research Methods
8.1.1Experimental Method
8.1.2Observational Techniques
8.1.3Covert, Overt & Controlled Observation
8.1.4Self-Report Techniques
8.1.5Correlations
8.1.6Exam-Style Question - Research Methods
8.1.7End of Topic Test - Research Methods
8.1.8Diagnostic Misconceptions - Sign Test
8.1.9Diagnostic Misconceptions - Content & Thematic
8.1.10Diagnostic Misconceptions - Valid vs Reliable
8.1.11Diagnostic Misconceptions - Confounding Variable
8.2Scientific Processes
8.2.1Aims, Hypotheses & Sampling
8.2.2Pilot Studies & Design
8.2.3Questionnaires
8.2.4Variables & Control
8.2.5Demand Characteristics & Investigator Effects
8.2.6Ethics
8.2.7Limitations of Ethical Guidelines
8.2.8Consent & Protection from Harm Studies
8.2.9Peer Review & The Economy
8.2.10Validity (A2 only)
8.2.11Reliability (A2 only)
8.2.12Features of Science (A2 only)
8.2.13Paradigms & Falsifiability (A2 only)
8.2.14Scientific Report (A2 only)
8.2.15Scientific Report 2 (A2 only)
8.2.16End of Topic Test - Scientific Processes
8.3Data Handling & Analysis
8.3.1Types of Data
8.3.2Descriptive Statistics
8.3.3Correlation
8.3.4Evaluation of Descriptive Statistics
8.3.5Presentation & Display of Data
8.3.6Levels of Measurement (A2 only)
8.3.7Content Analysis (A2 only)
8.3.8Case Studies (A2 only)
8.3.9Thematic Analysis (A2 only)
8.3.10End of Topic Test - Data Handling & Analysis
9Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
9.1Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
9.1.1Culture Bias
9.1.2Sub-Culture Bias
9.1.3Gender Bias
9.1.4Ethnocentrism
9.1.5Cross Cultural Research
9.1.6Free Will & Determinism
9.1.7Comparison of Free Will & Determinism
9.1.8Reductionism & Holism
9.1.9Reductionist & Holistic Approaches
9.1.10Nature-Nurture Debate
9.1.11Interactionist Approach
9.1.12Nature-Nurture Methods
9.1.13Nature-Nurture Approaches
9.1.14Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches
9.1.15Socially Sensitive Research
9.1.16End of Topic Test - Issues and Debates
10Option 1: Relationships (A2 only)
10.1Relationships: Sexual Relationships (A2 only)
10.1.1Sexual Selection & Human Reproductive Behaviour
10.1.2Intersexual & Intrasexual Selection
10.1.3Evaluation of Sexual Selection Behaviour
10.1.4Factors Affecting Attraction: Self-Disclosure
10.1.5Evaluation of Self-Disclosure Theory
10.1.6Self Disclosure in Computer Communication
10.1.7Factors Affecting Attraction: Physical Attributes
10.1.8Matching Hypothesis Studies
10.1.9Factors Affecting Physical Attraction
10.1.10Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 1
10.1.11Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 2
10.1.12Evaluation of Filter Theory
10.1.13End of Topic Test - Sexual Relationships
10.2Relationships: Romantic Relationships (A2 only)
10.2.1Social Exchange Theory
10.2.2Evaluation of Social Exchange Theory
10.2.3Equity Theory
10.2.4Evaluation of Equity Theory
10.2.5Rusbult’s Investment Model
10.2.6Evaluation of Rusbult's Investment Model
10.2.7Relationship Breakdown
10.2.8Studies on Relationship Breakdown
10.2.9Evaluation of Relationship Breakdown
10.2.10End of Topic Test - Romantic relationships
10.3Relationships: Virtual & Parasocial (A2 only)
11Option 1: Gender (A2 only)
11.1Gender (A2 only)
11.1.1Sex, Gender & Androgyny
11.1.2Gender Identity Disorder
11.1.3Biological & Social Explanations of GID
11.1.4Biological Influences on Gender
11.1.5Effects of Hormones on Gender
11.1.6End of Topic Test - Gender 1
11.1.7Kohlberg’s Theory of Gender Constancy
11.1.8Evaluation of Kohlberg's Theory
11.1.9Gender Schema Theory
11.1.10Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 1
11.1.11Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 2
11.1.12Social Approach to Gender Development
11.1.13Criticisms of Social Theory
11.1.14End of Topic Test - Gender 2
11.1.15Media Influence on Gender Development
11.1.16Cross Cultural Research
11.1.17Childcare & Gender Roles
11.1.18End of Topic Test - Gender 3
12Option 1: Cognition & Development (A2 only)
12.1Cognition & Development (A2 only)
12.1.1Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 1
12.1.2Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 2
12.1.3Schema Accommodation Assimilation & Equilibration
12.1.4Piaget & Inhelder’s Three Mountains Task (1956)
12.1.5Conservation & Class Inclusion
12.1.6Evaluation of Piaget
12.1.7End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 1
12.1.8Vygotsky
12.1.9Evaluation of Vygotsky
12.1.10Baillargeon
12.1.11Baillargeon's studies
12.1.12Evaluation of Baillargeon
12.1.13End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 2
12.1.14Sense of Self & Theory of Mind
12.1.15Baron-Cohen Studies
12.1.16Selman’s Five Levels of Perspective Taking
12.1.17Biological Basis of Social Cognition
12.1.18Evaluation of Biological Basis of Social Cognition
12.1.19Important Issues in Social Neuroscience
12.1.20End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 3
12.1.21Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Cognition & Development
13Option 2: Schizophrenia (A2 only)
13.1Schizophrenia: Diagnosis (A2 only)
13.2Schizophrenia: Treatment (A2 only)
13.2.1Family-Based Psychological Explanations
13.2.2Evaluation of Family-Based Explanations
13.2.3Cognitive Explanations
13.2.4Drug Therapies
13.2.5Evaluation of Drug Therapies
13.2.6Biological Explanations for Schizophrenia
13.2.7Dopamine Hypothesis
13.2.8End of Topic Test - Schizoprenia Treatment 1
13.2.9Psychological Therapies 1
13.2.10Psychological Therapies 2
13.2.11Evaluation of Psychological Therapies
13.2.12Interactionist Approach - Diathesis-Stress Model
13.2.13Interactionist Approach - Triggers & Treatment
13.2.14Evaluation of the Interactionist Approach
13.2.15End of Topic Test - Scizophrenia Treatments 2
13.2.16Diagnostic Misconceptions - CBT & CBTp
14Option 2: Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
14.1Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
14.1.1Explanations for Food Preferences
14.1.2Birch et al (1987) & Lowe et al (2004)
14.1.3Control of Eating Behaviours
14.1.4Control of Eating Behaviour: Leptin
14.1.5Biological Explanations for Anorexia Nervosa
14.1.6Psychological Explanations: Family Systems Theory
14.1.7Psychological Explanations: Social Learning Theory
14.1.8Psychological Explanations: Cognitive Theory
14.1.9Biological Explanations for Obesity
14.1.10Biological Explanations: Studies
14.1.11Psychological Explanations for Obesity
14.1.12Psychological Explanations: Studies
14.1.13End of Topic Test - Eating Behaviour
15Option 2: Stress (A2 only)
15.1Stress (A2 only)
15.1.1Physiology of Stress
15.1.2Role of Stress in Illness
15.1.3Role of Stress in Illness: Studies
15.1.4Social Readjustment Rating Scales
15.1.5Hassles & Uplifts Scales
15.1.6Stress, Workload & Control
15.1.7Stress Level Studies
15.1.8End of Topic Test - Stress 1
15.1.9Physiological Measures of Stress
15.1.10Individual Differences
15.1.11Stress & Gender
15.1.12Drug Therapy & Biofeedback for Stress
15.1.13Stress Inoculation Therapy
15.1.14Social Support & Stress
15.1.15End of Topic Test - Stress 2
16Option 3: Aggression (A2 only)
16.1Aggression: Physiological (A2 only)
16.1.1Neural Mechanisms
16.1.2Serotonin
16.1.3Hormonal Mechanisms
16.1.4Genetic Factors
16.1.5Genetic Factors 2
16.1.6End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 1
16.1.7Ethological Explanation
16.1.8Innate Releasing Mechanisms & Fixed Action Pattern
16.1.9Evolutionary Explanations
16.1.10Buss et al (1992) - Sex Differences in Jealousy
16.1.11Evaluation of Evolutionary Explanations
16.1.12End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 2
16.2Aggression: Social Psychological (A2 only)
16.2.1Social Psychological Explanation
16.2.2Buss (1963) - Frustration/Aggression
16.2.3Social Psychological Explanation 2
16.2.4Social Learning Theory (SLT) 1
16.2.5Social Learning Theory (SLT) 2
16.2.6Limitations of Social Learning Theory (SLT)
16.2.7Deindividuation
16.2.8Deindividuation 2
16.2.9Deindividuation - Diener et al (1976)
16.2.10End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology
16.2.11Institutional Aggression: Prisons
16.2.12Evaluation of Dispositional & Situational
16.2.13Influence of Computer Games
16.2.14Influence of Television
16.2.15Evaluation of Studies on Media
16.2.16Desensitisation & Disinhibition
16.2.17Cognitive Priming
16.2.18End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology
17Option 3: Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
17.1Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
17.1.1Defining Crime
17.1.2Measuring Crime
17.1.3Offender Profiling
17.1.4Evaluation of Offender Profiling
17.1.5John Duffy Case Study
17.1.6Biological Explanations 1
17.1.7Biological Explanations 2
17.1.8Evaluation of the Biological Explanation
17.1.9Cognitive Explanations
17.1.10Moral Reasoning
17.1.11Psychodynamic Explanation 1
17.1.12Psychodynamic Explanation 2
17.1.13End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 1
17.1.14Differential Association Theory
17.1.15Custodial Sentencing
17.1.16Effects of Prison
17.1.17Evaluation of the Effects of Prison
17.1.18Recidivism
17.1.19Behavioural Treatments & Therapies
17.1.20Effectiveness of Behavioural Treatments
17.1.21Restorative Justice
17.1.22End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 2
18Option 3: Addiction (A2 only)
18.1Addiction (A2 only)
18.1.1Definition
18.1.2Brain Neurochemistry Explanation
18.1.3Learning Theory Explanation
18.1.4Evaluation of a Learning Theory Explanation
18.1.5Cognitive Bias
18.1.6Griffiths on Cognitive Bias
18.1.7Evaluation of Cognitive Theory (A2 only)
18.1.8End of Topic Test - Addiction 1
18.1.9Gambling Addiction & Learning Theory
18.1.10Social Influences on Addiction 1
18.1.11Social Influences on Addiction 2
18.1.12Personal Influences on Addiction
18.1.13Genetic Explanations of Addiction
18.1.14End of Topic Test - Addiction 2
Unlock your full potential with Seneca Premium
Unlimited access to 10,000+ open-ended exam questions
Mini-mock exams based on your study history
Unlock 800+ premium courses & e-books