8.1.1
Experimental Method
The Experimental Method
The Experimental Method
Experiments are one of the most popular and useful research methods in psychology. The key types are laboratory and field experiments.
Role in psychology
Role in psychology
- Experiments play a major role throughout psychology.
- As a method, experiments allow one variable to be manipulated while keeping everything the same.
- This allows researchers to show cause and effect.
Laboratory experiments
Laboratory experiments
- Some experiments take place under controlled condition, such as in a university room supervised by the researchers.
- These are called laboratory (or ‘lab’) experiments.
- The advantage of laboratory experiments is that they increase the level of control that a researcher can have.
- But they reduce the level of ecological validity of the research.
Field experiments
Field experiments
- Other experiments take place in a participant’s natural surroundings, such as their school or workplace.
- These are called field experiments.
- The advantage of field experiments is that they increase the ecological validity of the study by making the surroundings more realistic.
- But they reduce the level of control.
True experiments
True experiments
- Both field experiments and lab experiments control the variables under investigation, and randomly allocate participants to groups.
- These characteristics mean that they are true experiments.
Quasi-Experiments
Quasi-Experiments
Quasi-experiments are not true experiments because they lack control over the experimental groups used.
Lack of random allocation
Lack of random allocation
- Sometimes it is not possible for an experimenter to randomly allocate participants to experimental groups.
- For example, if one of the variables under investigation is gender, people can’t be randomly allocated to ‘male’ and ‘female’ conditions.
- A study is termed a quasi-experiment if it lacks random allocation to groups but is like a true experiment in most or all other ways.
Examples of quasi-experiments
Examples of quasi-experiments
- Other examples of quasi-experiments include studies which compare different types of personality (e.g. introverts versus extroverts) or compare people who have a psychological disorder with a control group who do not.
- Such studies cannot randomly allocate people to groups.
Quasi vs lab
Quasi vs lab
- Quasi-experiments could take place in a lab, and all other aspects of the research and data gathering can be controlled.
- This means they are easy to mix up with laboratory experiments.
Natural Experiments
Natural Experiments
Natural experiments are logically similar to true experiments, but the situation happens by itself and so is completely uncontrolled by the researcher.
Ethics
Ethics
- Sometimes, for ethical or practical reasons, it is not possible for an experimenter to control and manipulate one of the variables under investigation.
- For example, it wouldn’t be ethically correct to expose people to a lot of stress to investigate its effects.
- In such situations, a researcher may use a natural experiment.
Similarity to true experiments
Similarity to true experiments
- Natural experiments are logically similar to true experiments in the sense that a variable happens, and the researcher tries to measure its effects.
- For example, they could compare the educational outcomes of school pupils who experience a lot of stress versus those who do not.
Differences to true experiments
Differences to true experiments
- In contrast to a true experiment or a quasi-experiment, the variable under investigation happens by itself and so is completely uncontrolled by the researcher.
- The researcher also has no control at all over who is in each ‘experimental’ group.
Location of natural experiments
Location of natural experiments
- Because natural experiments are not set up by the researcher, they always take place in participants’ everyday surroundings such as their home or school.
- This means they are easy to mix up with field experiments.
1Social Influence
1.1Social Influence
1.1.1Conformity
1.1.2Asch (1951)
1.1.3Sherif (1935)
1.1.4Conformity to Social Roles
1.1.5BBC Prison Study
1.1.6End of Topic Test - Conformity
1.1.7Obedience
1.1.8Analysing Milgram's Experiment
1.1.9Agentic State & Legitimate Authority
1.1.10Variables of Obedience
1.1.11Resistance to Social Influence
1.1.12Minority Influence & Social Change
1.1.13Minority Influence & Social Impact Theory
1.1.14End of Topic Test - Social Influences
1.1.15Exam-Style Question - Conformity
1.1.16Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Social Influence
2Memory
2.1Memory
2.1.1Multi-Store Model of Memory
2.1.2Short-Term vs Long-Term Memory
2.1.3Long-Term Memory
2.1.4Support for the Multi-Store Model of Memory
2.1.5Duration Studies
2.1.6Capacity Studies
2.1.7Coding Studies
2.1.8The Working Memory Model
2.1.9The Working Memory Model 2
2.1.10Support for the Working Memory Model
2.1.11Explanations for Forgetting
2.1.12Studies on Interference
2.1.13Cue-Dependent Forgetting
2.1.14Eye Witness Testimony - Loftus & Palmer
2.1.15Eye Witness Testimony Loftus
2.1.16Eyewitness Testimony - Post-Event Discussion
2.1.17Eyewitness Testimony - Age & Misleading Questions
2.1.18Cognitive Interview
2.1.19Cognitive Interview - Geiselman & Fisher
2.1.20End of Topic Test - Memory
2.1.21Exam-Style Question - Memory
2.1.22A-A* (AO3/4) - Memory
3Attachment
3.1Attachment
3.1.1Caregiver-Infant Interaction
3.1.2Condon & Sander (1974)
3.1.3Schaffer & Emerson (1964)
3.1.4Multiple Attachments
3.1.5Studies on the Role of the Father
3.1.6Animal Studies of Attachment
3.1.7Explanations of Attachment
3.1.8Attachment Types - Strange Situation
3.1.9Cultural Differences in Attachment
3.1.10Disruption of Attachment
3.1.11Disruption of Attachment - Privation
3.1.12Overcoming the Effects of Disruption
3.1.13The Effects of Institutionalisation
3.1.14Early Attachment
3.1.15Critical Period of Attachment
3.1.16End of Topic Test - Attachment
3.1.17Exam-Style Question - Attachment
3.1.18Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Attachment
4(2026 Exams) Psychopathology
4.1Psychopathology
4.1.1Abnormality
4.1.2Abnormality 2
4.1.3Phobias, Depression & OCD
4.1.4Phobias: Behavioural Approach
4.1.5Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias
4.1.6Depression: Cognitive Approach
4.1.7OCD: Biological Approach
4.1.8Evidence for the Biological Approach
4.1.9End of Topic Test - Psychopathy
4.1.10Exam-Style Question - Phobias
4.1.11Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology
4.1.12Diagnostic Misconceptions - Phobia vs Fear
4.1.13Diagnostic Misconceptions - Depression & Self-Harm
4.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Desensitisation
5Approaches in Psychology
5.1Approaches in Psychology
5.1.1Psychology as a Science
5.1.2Origins of Psychology
5.1.3Reductionism & Problems with Introspection
5.1.4The Behaviourist Approach - Classical Conditioning
5.1.5Pavlov's Experiment
5.1.6Little Albert Study
5.1.7The Behaviourist Approach - Operant Conditioning
5.1.8Social Learning Theory
5.1.9The Cognitive Approach 1
5.1.10The Cognitive Approach 2
5.1.11The Biological Approach
5.1.12Gottesman (1991) - Twin Studies
5.1.13Brain Scanning
5.1.14Structure of Personality & Little Hans
5.1.15The Psychodynamic Approach (A2 only)
5.1.16Humanistic Psychology (A2 only)
5.1.17Aronoff (1957) (A2 Only)
5.1.18Rogers' Client-Centred Therapy (A2 only)
5.1.19End of Topic Test - Approaches in Psychology
5.1.20Exam-Style Question - Approaches in Psychology
5.2Comparison of Approaches (A2 only)
6Biopsychology
6.1Biopsychology
6.1.1Nervous System Divisions
6.1.2Neuron Structure & Function
6.1.3Neurotransmitters
6.1.4Endocrine System Function
6.1.5Fight or Flight Response
6.1.6The Brain (A2 only)
6.1.7Localisation of Brain Function (A2 only)
6.1.8Studying the Brain (A2 only)
6.1.9CIMT (A2 Only) & Postmortem Examinations
6.1.10Biological Rhythms (A2 only)
6.1.11Studies on Biological Rhythms (A2 Only)
6.1.12End of Topic Test - Biopsychology
6.1.13Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Biopsychology
6.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Plasticity & Recovery
6.1.15Diagnostic Misconceptions - Endogenous Pacemakers
7(2027 Exams) Clinical Psychology & Mental Health
7.1Clinical Psychology & Mental Health
7.1.1Deviation from Social Norms
7.1.2Deviation from Social Norms 2
7.1.3Phobias, Depression & OCD
7.1.4Phobias: Behavioural Approach
7.1.5Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias
7.1.6Depression: Cognitive Approach
7.1.7OCD: Biological Approach
7.1.8Evidence for the Biological Approach
7.1.9End of Topic Test - Psychopathy
7.1.10Exam-Style Question - Phobias
7.1.11Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology
7.1.12Diagnostic Misconceptions - Phobia vs Fear
7.1.13Diagnostic Misconceptions - Depression & Self-Harm
7.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Desensitisation
8Research Methods
8.1Research Methods
8.1.1Experimental Method
8.1.2Observational Techniques
8.1.3Covert, Overt & Controlled Observation
8.1.4Self-Report Techniques
8.1.5Correlations
8.1.6Exam-Style Question - Research Methods
8.1.7End of Topic Test - Research Methods
8.1.8Diagnostic Misconceptions - Sign Test
8.1.9Diagnostic Misconceptions - Content & Thematic
8.1.10Diagnostic Misconceptions - Valid vs Reliable
8.1.11Diagnostic Misconceptions - Confounding Variable
8.2Scientific Processes
8.2.1Aims, Hypotheses & Sampling
8.2.2Pilot Studies & Design
8.2.3Questionnaires
8.2.4Variables & Control
8.2.5Demand Characteristics & Investigator Effects
8.2.6Ethics
8.2.7Limitations of Ethical Guidelines
8.2.8Consent & Protection from Harm Studies
8.2.9Peer Review & The Economy
8.2.10Validity (A2 only)
8.2.11Reliability (A2 only)
8.2.12Features of Science (A2 only)
8.2.13Paradigms & Falsifiability (A2 only)
8.2.14Scientific Report (A2 only)
8.2.15Scientific Report 2 (A2 only)
8.2.16End of Topic Test - Scientific Processes
8.3Data Handling & Analysis
8.3.1Types of Data
8.3.2Descriptive Statistics
8.3.3Correlation
8.3.4Evaluation of Descriptive Statistics
8.3.5Presentation & Display of Data
8.3.6Levels of Measurement (A2 only)
8.3.7Content Analysis (A2 only)
8.3.8Case Studies (A2 only)
8.3.9Thematic Analysis (A2 only)
8.3.10End of Topic Test - Data Handling & Analysis
9Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
9.1Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
9.1.1Culture Bias
9.1.2Sub-Culture Bias
9.1.3Gender Bias
9.1.4Ethnocentrism
9.1.5Cross Cultural Research
9.1.6Free Will & Determinism
9.1.7Comparison of Free Will & Determinism
9.1.8Reductionism & Holism
9.1.9Reductionist & Holistic Approaches
9.1.10Nature-Nurture Debate
9.1.11Interactionist Approach
9.1.12Nature-Nurture Methods
9.1.13Nature-Nurture Approaches
9.1.14Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches
9.1.15Socially Sensitive Research
9.1.16End of Topic Test - Issues and Debates
10Option 1: Relationships (A2 only)
10.1Relationships: Sexual Relationships (A2 only)
10.1.1Sexual Selection & Human Reproductive Behaviour
10.1.2Intersexual & Intrasexual Selection
10.1.3Evaluation of Sexual Selection Behaviour
10.1.4Factors Affecting Attraction: Self-Disclosure
10.1.5Evaluation of Self-Disclosure Theory
10.1.6Self Disclosure in Computer Communication
10.1.7Factors Affecting Attraction: Physical Attributes
10.1.8Matching Hypothesis Studies
10.1.9Factors Affecting Physical Attraction
10.1.10Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 1
10.1.11Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 2
10.1.12Evaluation of Filter Theory
10.1.13End of Topic Test - Sexual Relationships
10.2Relationships: Romantic Relationships (A2 only)
10.2.1Social Exchange Theory
10.2.2Evaluation of Social Exchange Theory
10.2.3Equity Theory
10.2.4Evaluation of Equity Theory
10.2.5Rusbult’s Investment Model
10.2.6Evaluation of Rusbult's Investment Model
10.2.7Relationship Breakdown
10.2.8Studies on Relationship Breakdown
10.2.9Evaluation of Relationship Breakdown
10.2.10End of Topic Test - Romantic relationships
10.3Relationships: Virtual & Parasocial (A2 only)
11Option 1: Gender (A2 only)
11.1Gender (A2 only)
11.1.1Sex, Gender & Androgyny
11.1.2Gender Identity Disorder
11.1.3Biological & Social Explanations of GID
11.1.4Biological Influences on Gender
11.1.5Effects of Hormones on Gender
11.1.6End of Topic Test - Gender 1
11.1.7Kohlberg’s Theory of Gender Constancy
11.1.8Evaluation of Kohlberg's Theory
11.1.9Gender Schema Theory
11.1.10Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 1
11.1.11Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 2
11.1.12Social Approach to Gender Development
11.1.13Criticisms of Social Theory
11.1.14End of Topic Test - Gender 2
11.1.15Media Influence on Gender Development
11.1.16Cross Cultural Research
11.1.17Childcare & Gender Roles
11.1.18End of Topic Test - Gender 3
12Option 1: Cognition & Development (A2 only)
12.1Cognition & Development (A2 only)
12.1.1Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 1
12.1.2Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 2
12.1.3Schema Accommodation Assimilation & Equilibration
12.1.4Piaget & Inhelder’s Three Mountains Task (1956)
12.1.5Conservation & Class Inclusion
12.1.6Evaluation of Piaget
12.1.7End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 1
12.1.8Vygotsky
12.1.9Evaluation of Vygotsky
12.1.10Baillargeon
12.1.11Baillargeon's studies
12.1.12Evaluation of Baillargeon
12.1.13End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 2
12.1.14Sense of Self & Theory of Mind
12.1.15Baron-Cohen Studies
12.1.16Selman’s Five Levels of Perspective Taking
12.1.17Biological Basis of Social Cognition
12.1.18Evaluation of Biological Basis of Social Cognition
12.1.19Important Issues in Social Neuroscience
12.1.20End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 3
12.1.21Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Cognition & Development
13Option 2: Schizophrenia (A2 only)
13.1Schizophrenia: Diagnosis (A2 only)
13.2Schizophrenia: Treatment (A2 only)
13.2.1Family-Based Psychological Explanations
13.2.2Evaluation of Family-Based Explanations
13.2.3Cognitive Explanations
13.2.4Drug Therapies
13.2.5Evaluation of Drug Therapies
13.2.6Biological Explanations for Schizophrenia
13.2.7Dopamine Hypothesis
13.2.8End of Topic Test - Schizoprenia Treatment 1
13.2.9Psychological Therapies 1
13.2.10Psychological Therapies 2
13.2.11Evaluation of Psychological Therapies
13.2.12Interactionist Approach - Diathesis-Stress Model
13.2.13Interactionist Approach - Triggers & Treatment
13.2.14Evaluation of the Interactionist Approach
13.2.15End of Topic Test - Scizophrenia Treatments 2
13.2.16Diagnostic Misconceptions - CBT & CBTp
14Option 2: Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
14.1Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
14.1.1Explanations for Food Preferences
14.1.2Birch et al (1987) & Lowe et al (2004)
14.1.3Control of Eating Behaviours
14.1.4Control of Eating Behaviour: Leptin
14.1.5Biological Explanations for Anorexia Nervosa
14.1.6Psychological Explanations: Family Systems Theory
14.1.7Psychological Explanations: Social Learning Theory
14.1.8Psychological Explanations: Cognitive Theory
14.1.9Biological Explanations for Obesity
14.1.10Biological Explanations: Studies
14.1.11Psychological Explanations for Obesity
14.1.12Psychological Explanations: Studies
14.1.13End of Topic Test - Eating Behaviour
15Option 2: Stress (A2 only)
15.1Stress (A2 only)
15.1.1Physiology of Stress
15.1.2Role of Stress in Illness
15.1.3Role of Stress in Illness: Studies
15.1.4Social Readjustment Rating Scales
15.1.5Hassles & Uplifts Scales
15.1.6Stress, Workload & Control
15.1.7Stress Level Studies
15.1.8End of Topic Test - Stress 1
15.1.9Physiological Measures of Stress
15.1.10Individual Differences
15.1.11Stress & Gender
15.1.12Drug Therapy & Biofeedback for Stress
15.1.13Stress Inoculation Therapy
15.1.14Social Support & Stress
15.1.15End of Topic Test - Stress 2
16Option 3: Aggression (A2 only)
16.1Aggression: Physiological (A2 only)
16.1.1Neural Mechanisms
16.1.2Serotonin
16.1.3Hormonal Mechanisms
16.1.4Genetic Factors
16.1.5Genetic Factors 2
16.1.6End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 1
16.1.7Ethological Explanation
16.1.8Innate Releasing Mechanisms & Fixed Action Pattern
16.1.9Evolutionary Explanations
16.1.10Buss et al (1992) - Sex Differences in Jealousy
16.1.11Evaluation of Evolutionary Explanations
16.1.12End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 2
16.2Aggression: Social Psychological (A2 only)
16.2.1Social Psychological Explanation
16.2.2Buss (1963) - Frustration/Aggression
16.2.3Social Psychological Explanation 2
16.2.4Social Learning Theory (SLT) 1
16.2.5Social Learning Theory (SLT) 2
16.2.6Limitations of Social Learning Theory (SLT)
16.2.7Deindividuation
16.2.8Deindividuation 2
16.2.9Deindividuation - Diener et al (1976)
16.2.10End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology
16.2.11Institutional Aggression: Prisons
16.2.12Evaluation of Dispositional & Situational
16.2.13Influence of Computer Games
16.2.14Influence of Television
16.2.15Evaluation of Studies on Media
16.2.16Desensitisation & Disinhibition
16.2.17Cognitive Priming
16.2.18End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology
17Option 3: Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
17.1Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
17.1.1Defining Crime
17.1.2Measuring Crime
17.1.3Offender Profiling
17.1.4Evaluation of Offender Profiling
17.1.5John Duffy Case Study
17.1.6Biological Explanations 1
17.1.7Biological Explanations 2
17.1.8Evaluation of the Biological Explanation
17.1.9Cognitive Explanations
17.1.10Moral Reasoning
17.1.11Psychodynamic Explanation 1
17.1.12Psychodynamic Explanation 2
17.1.13End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 1
17.1.14Differential Association Theory
17.1.15Custodial Sentencing
17.1.16Effects of Prison
17.1.17Evaluation of the Effects of Prison
17.1.18Recidivism
17.1.19Behavioural Treatments & Therapies
17.1.20Effectiveness of Behavioural Treatments
17.1.21Restorative Justice
17.1.22End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 2
18Option 3: Addiction (A2 only)
18.1Addiction (A2 only)
18.1.1Definition
18.1.2Brain Neurochemistry Explanation
18.1.3Learning Theory Explanation
18.1.4Evaluation of a Learning Theory Explanation
18.1.5Cognitive Bias
18.1.6Griffiths on Cognitive Bias
18.1.7Evaluation of Cognitive Theory (A2 only)
18.1.8End of Topic Test - Addiction 1
18.1.9Gambling Addiction & Learning Theory
18.1.10Social Influences on Addiction 1
18.1.11Social Influences on Addiction 2
18.1.12Personal Influences on Addiction
18.1.13Genetic Explanations of Addiction
18.1.14End of Topic Test - Addiction 2
Jump to other topics
1Social Influence
1.1Social Influence
1.1.1Conformity
1.1.2Asch (1951)
1.1.3Sherif (1935)
1.1.4Conformity to Social Roles
1.1.5BBC Prison Study
1.1.6End of Topic Test - Conformity
1.1.7Obedience
1.1.8Analysing Milgram's Experiment
1.1.9Agentic State & Legitimate Authority
1.1.10Variables of Obedience
1.1.11Resistance to Social Influence
1.1.12Minority Influence & Social Change
1.1.13Minority Influence & Social Impact Theory
1.1.14End of Topic Test - Social Influences
1.1.15Exam-Style Question - Conformity
1.1.16Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Social Influence
2Memory
2.1Memory
2.1.1Multi-Store Model of Memory
2.1.2Short-Term vs Long-Term Memory
2.1.3Long-Term Memory
2.1.4Support for the Multi-Store Model of Memory
2.1.5Duration Studies
2.1.6Capacity Studies
2.1.7Coding Studies
2.1.8The Working Memory Model
2.1.9The Working Memory Model 2
2.1.10Support for the Working Memory Model
2.1.11Explanations for Forgetting
2.1.12Studies on Interference
2.1.13Cue-Dependent Forgetting
2.1.14Eye Witness Testimony - Loftus & Palmer
2.1.15Eye Witness Testimony Loftus
2.1.16Eyewitness Testimony - Post-Event Discussion
2.1.17Eyewitness Testimony - Age & Misleading Questions
2.1.18Cognitive Interview
2.1.19Cognitive Interview - Geiselman & Fisher
2.1.20End of Topic Test - Memory
2.1.21Exam-Style Question - Memory
2.1.22A-A* (AO3/4) - Memory
3Attachment
3.1Attachment
3.1.1Caregiver-Infant Interaction
3.1.2Condon & Sander (1974)
3.1.3Schaffer & Emerson (1964)
3.1.4Multiple Attachments
3.1.5Studies on the Role of the Father
3.1.6Animal Studies of Attachment
3.1.7Explanations of Attachment
3.1.8Attachment Types - Strange Situation
3.1.9Cultural Differences in Attachment
3.1.10Disruption of Attachment
3.1.11Disruption of Attachment - Privation
3.1.12Overcoming the Effects of Disruption
3.1.13The Effects of Institutionalisation
3.1.14Early Attachment
3.1.15Critical Period of Attachment
3.1.16End of Topic Test - Attachment
3.1.17Exam-Style Question - Attachment
3.1.18Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Attachment
4(2026 Exams) Psychopathology
4.1Psychopathology
4.1.1Abnormality
4.1.2Abnormality 2
4.1.3Phobias, Depression & OCD
4.1.4Phobias: Behavioural Approach
4.1.5Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias
4.1.6Depression: Cognitive Approach
4.1.7OCD: Biological Approach
4.1.8Evidence for the Biological Approach
4.1.9End of Topic Test - Psychopathy
4.1.10Exam-Style Question - Phobias
4.1.11Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology
4.1.12Diagnostic Misconceptions - Phobia vs Fear
4.1.13Diagnostic Misconceptions - Depression & Self-Harm
4.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Desensitisation
5Approaches in Psychology
5.1Approaches in Psychology
5.1.1Psychology as a Science
5.1.2Origins of Psychology
5.1.3Reductionism & Problems with Introspection
5.1.4The Behaviourist Approach - Classical Conditioning
5.1.5Pavlov's Experiment
5.1.6Little Albert Study
5.1.7The Behaviourist Approach - Operant Conditioning
5.1.8Social Learning Theory
5.1.9The Cognitive Approach 1
5.1.10The Cognitive Approach 2
5.1.11The Biological Approach
5.1.12Gottesman (1991) - Twin Studies
5.1.13Brain Scanning
5.1.14Structure of Personality & Little Hans
5.1.15The Psychodynamic Approach (A2 only)
5.1.16Humanistic Psychology (A2 only)
5.1.17Aronoff (1957) (A2 Only)
5.1.18Rogers' Client-Centred Therapy (A2 only)
5.1.19End of Topic Test - Approaches in Psychology
5.1.20Exam-Style Question - Approaches in Psychology
5.2Comparison of Approaches (A2 only)
6Biopsychology
6.1Biopsychology
6.1.1Nervous System Divisions
6.1.2Neuron Structure & Function
6.1.3Neurotransmitters
6.1.4Endocrine System Function
6.1.5Fight or Flight Response
6.1.6The Brain (A2 only)
6.1.7Localisation of Brain Function (A2 only)
6.1.8Studying the Brain (A2 only)
6.1.9CIMT (A2 Only) & Postmortem Examinations
6.1.10Biological Rhythms (A2 only)
6.1.11Studies on Biological Rhythms (A2 Only)
6.1.12End of Topic Test - Biopsychology
6.1.13Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Biopsychology
6.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Plasticity & Recovery
6.1.15Diagnostic Misconceptions - Endogenous Pacemakers
7(2027 Exams) Clinical Psychology & Mental Health
7.1Clinical Psychology & Mental Health
7.1.1Deviation from Social Norms
7.1.2Deviation from Social Norms 2
7.1.3Phobias, Depression & OCD
7.1.4Phobias: Behavioural Approach
7.1.5Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias
7.1.6Depression: Cognitive Approach
7.1.7OCD: Biological Approach
7.1.8Evidence for the Biological Approach
7.1.9End of Topic Test - Psychopathy
7.1.10Exam-Style Question - Phobias
7.1.11Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology
7.1.12Diagnostic Misconceptions - Phobia vs Fear
7.1.13Diagnostic Misconceptions - Depression & Self-Harm
7.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Desensitisation
8Research Methods
8.1Research Methods
8.1.1Experimental Method
8.1.2Observational Techniques
8.1.3Covert, Overt & Controlled Observation
8.1.4Self-Report Techniques
8.1.5Correlations
8.1.6Exam-Style Question - Research Methods
8.1.7End of Topic Test - Research Methods
8.1.8Diagnostic Misconceptions - Sign Test
8.1.9Diagnostic Misconceptions - Content & Thematic
8.1.10Diagnostic Misconceptions - Valid vs Reliable
8.1.11Diagnostic Misconceptions - Confounding Variable
8.2Scientific Processes
8.2.1Aims, Hypotheses & Sampling
8.2.2Pilot Studies & Design
8.2.3Questionnaires
8.2.4Variables & Control
8.2.5Demand Characteristics & Investigator Effects
8.2.6Ethics
8.2.7Limitations of Ethical Guidelines
8.2.8Consent & Protection from Harm Studies
8.2.9Peer Review & The Economy
8.2.10Validity (A2 only)
8.2.11Reliability (A2 only)
8.2.12Features of Science (A2 only)
8.2.13Paradigms & Falsifiability (A2 only)
8.2.14Scientific Report (A2 only)
8.2.15Scientific Report 2 (A2 only)
8.2.16End of Topic Test - Scientific Processes
8.3Data Handling & Analysis
8.3.1Types of Data
8.3.2Descriptive Statistics
8.3.3Correlation
8.3.4Evaluation of Descriptive Statistics
8.3.5Presentation & Display of Data
8.3.6Levels of Measurement (A2 only)
8.3.7Content Analysis (A2 only)
8.3.8Case Studies (A2 only)
8.3.9Thematic Analysis (A2 only)
8.3.10End of Topic Test - Data Handling & Analysis
9Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
9.1Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
9.1.1Culture Bias
9.1.2Sub-Culture Bias
9.1.3Gender Bias
9.1.4Ethnocentrism
9.1.5Cross Cultural Research
9.1.6Free Will & Determinism
9.1.7Comparison of Free Will & Determinism
9.1.8Reductionism & Holism
9.1.9Reductionist & Holistic Approaches
9.1.10Nature-Nurture Debate
9.1.11Interactionist Approach
9.1.12Nature-Nurture Methods
9.1.13Nature-Nurture Approaches
9.1.14Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches
9.1.15Socially Sensitive Research
9.1.16End of Topic Test - Issues and Debates
10Option 1: Relationships (A2 only)
10.1Relationships: Sexual Relationships (A2 only)
10.1.1Sexual Selection & Human Reproductive Behaviour
10.1.2Intersexual & Intrasexual Selection
10.1.3Evaluation of Sexual Selection Behaviour
10.1.4Factors Affecting Attraction: Self-Disclosure
10.1.5Evaluation of Self-Disclosure Theory
10.1.6Self Disclosure in Computer Communication
10.1.7Factors Affecting Attraction: Physical Attributes
10.1.8Matching Hypothesis Studies
10.1.9Factors Affecting Physical Attraction
10.1.10Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 1
10.1.11Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 2
10.1.12Evaluation of Filter Theory
10.1.13End of Topic Test - Sexual Relationships
10.2Relationships: Romantic Relationships (A2 only)
10.2.1Social Exchange Theory
10.2.2Evaluation of Social Exchange Theory
10.2.3Equity Theory
10.2.4Evaluation of Equity Theory
10.2.5Rusbult’s Investment Model
10.2.6Evaluation of Rusbult's Investment Model
10.2.7Relationship Breakdown
10.2.8Studies on Relationship Breakdown
10.2.9Evaluation of Relationship Breakdown
10.2.10End of Topic Test - Romantic relationships
10.3Relationships: Virtual & Parasocial (A2 only)
11Option 1: Gender (A2 only)
11.1Gender (A2 only)
11.1.1Sex, Gender & Androgyny
11.1.2Gender Identity Disorder
11.1.3Biological & Social Explanations of GID
11.1.4Biological Influences on Gender
11.1.5Effects of Hormones on Gender
11.1.6End of Topic Test - Gender 1
11.1.7Kohlberg’s Theory of Gender Constancy
11.1.8Evaluation of Kohlberg's Theory
11.1.9Gender Schema Theory
11.1.10Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 1
11.1.11Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 2
11.1.12Social Approach to Gender Development
11.1.13Criticisms of Social Theory
11.1.14End of Topic Test - Gender 2
11.1.15Media Influence on Gender Development
11.1.16Cross Cultural Research
11.1.17Childcare & Gender Roles
11.1.18End of Topic Test - Gender 3
12Option 1: Cognition & Development (A2 only)
12.1Cognition & Development (A2 only)
12.1.1Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 1
12.1.2Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 2
12.1.3Schema Accommodation Assimilation & Equilibration
12.1.4Piaget & Inhelder’s Three Mountains Task (1956)
12.1.5Conservation & Class Inclusion
12.1.6Evaluation of Piaget
12.1.7End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 1
12.1.8Vygotsky
12.1.9Evaluation of Vygotsky
12.1.10Baillargeon
12.1.11Baillargeon's studies
12.1.12Evaluation of Baillargeon
12.1.13End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 2
12.1.14Sense of Self & Theory of Mind
12.1.15Baron-Cohen Studies
12.1.16Selman’s Five Levels of Perspective Taking
12.1.17Biological Basis of Social Cognition
12.1.18Evaluation of Biological Basis of Social Cognition
12.1.19Important Issues in Social Neuroscience
12.1.20End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 3
12.1.21Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Cognition & Development
13Option 2: Schizophrenia (A2 only)
13.1Schizophrenia: Diagnosis (A2 only)
13.2Schizophrenia: Treatment (A2 only)
13.2.1Family-Based Psychological Explanations
13.2.2Evaluation of Family-Based Explanations
13.2.3Cognitive Explanations
13.2.4Drug Therapies
13.2.5Evaluation of Drug Therapies
13.2.6Biological Explanations for Schizophrenia
13.2.7Dopamine Hypothesis
13.2.8End of Topic Test - Schizoprenia Treatment 1
13.2.9Psychological Therapies 1
13.2.10Psychological Therapies 2
13.2.11Evaluation of Psychological Therapies
13.2.12Interactionist Approach - Diathesis-Stress Model
13.2.13Interactionist Approach - Triggers & Treatment
13.2.14Evaluation of the Interactionist Approach
13.2.15End of Topic Test - Scizophrenia Treatments 2
13.2.16Diagnostic Misconceptions - CBT & CBTp
14Option 2: Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
14.1Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
14.1.1Explanations for Food Preferences
14.1.2Birch et al (1987) & Lowe et al (2004)
14.1.3Control of Eating Behaviours
14.1.4Control of Eating Behaviour: Leptin
14.1.5Biological Explanations for Anorexia Nervosa
14.1.6Psychological Explanations: Family Systems Theory
14.1.7Psychological Explanations: Social Learning Theory
14.1.8Psychological Explanations: Cognitive Theory
14.1.9Biological Explanations for Obesity
14.1.10Biological Explanations: Studies
14.1.11Psychological Explanations for Obesity
14.1.12Psychological Explanations: Studies
14.1.13End of Topic Test - Eating Behaviour
15Option 2: Stress (A2 only)
15.1Stress (A2 only)
15.1.1Physiology of Stress
15.1.2Role of Stress in Illness
15.1.3Role of Stress in Illness: Studies
15.1.4Social Readjustment Rating Scales
15.1.5Hassles & Uplifts Scales
15.1.6Stress, Workload & Control
15.1.7Stress Level Studies
15.1.8End of Topic Test - Stress 1
15.1.9Physiological Measures of Stress
15.1.10Individual Differences
15.1.11Stress & Gender
15.1.12Drug Therapy & Biofeedback for Stress
15.1.13Stress Inoculation Therapy
15.1.14Social Support & Stress
15.1.15End of Topic Test - Stress 2
16Option 3: Aggression (A2 only)
16.1Aggression: Physiological (A2 only)
16.1.1Neural Mechanisms
16.1.2Serotonin
16.1.3Hormonal Mechanisms
16.1.4Genetic Factors
16.1.5Genetic Factors 2
16.1.6End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 1
16.1.7Ethological Explanation
16.1.8Innate Releasing Mechanisms & Fixed Action Pattern
16.1.9Evolutionary Explanations
16.1.10Buss et al (1992) - Sex Differences in Jealousy
16.1.11Evaluation of Evolutionary Explanations
16.1.12End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 2
16.2Aggression: Social Psychological (A2 only)
16.2.1Social Psychological Explanation
16.2.2Buss (1963) - Frustration/Aggression
16.2.3Social Psychological Explanation 2
16.2.4Social Learning Theory (SLT) 1
16.2.5Social Learning Theory (SLT) 2
16.2.6Limitations of Social Learning Theory (SLT)
16.2.7Deindividuation
16.2.8Deindividuation 2
16.2.9Deindividuation - Diener et al (1976)
16.2.10End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology
16.2.11Institutional Aggression: Prisons
16.2.12Evaluation of Dispositional & Situational
16.2.13Influence of Computer Games
16.2.14Influence of Television
16.2.15Evaluation of Studies on Media
16.2.16Desensitisation & Disinhibition
16.2.17Cognitive Priming
16.2.18End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology
17Option 3: Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
17.1Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
17.1.1Defining Crime
17.1.2Measuring Crime
17.1.3Offender Profiling
17.1.4Evaluation of Offender Profiling
17.1.5John Duffy Case Study
17.1.6Biological Explanations 1
17.1.7Biological Explanations 2
17.1.8Evaluation of the Biological Explanation
17.1.9Cognitive Explanations
17.1.10Moral Reasoning
17.1.11Psychodynamic Explanation 1
17.1.12Psychodynamic Explanation 2
17.1.13End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 1
17.1.14Differential Association Theory
17.1.15Custodial Sentencing
17.1.16Effects of Prison
17.1.17Evaluation of the Effects of Prison
17.1.18Recidivism
17.1.19Behavioural Treatments & Therapies
17.1.20Effectiveness of Behavioural Treatments
17.1.21Restorative Justice
17.1.22End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 2
18Option 3: Addiction (A2 only)
18.1Addiction (A2 only)
18.1.1Definition
18.1.2Brain Neurochemistry Explanation
18.1.3Learning Theory Explanation
18.1.4Evaluation of a Learning Theory Explanation
18.1.5Cognitive Bias
18.1.6Griffiths on Cognitive Bias
18.1.7Evaluation of Cognitive Theory (A2 only)
18.1.8End of Topic Test - Addiction 1
18.1.9Gambling Addiction & Learning Theory
18.1.10Social Influences on Addiction 1
18.1.11Social Influences on Addiction 2
18.1.12Personal Influences on Addiction
18.1.13Genetic Explanations of Addiction
18.1.14End of Topic Test - Addiction 2
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