Eukaryotic Cells & Organelles

Cell-Surface Membranes and Cytoplasm

Prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells have a cell-surface (plasma) membrane that separates the inside of the cell from its environment.

Structure of the plasma membrane

The plasma membrane is made from a phospholipid bilayer.
- A phospholipid is a lipid molecule with glycerol, two fatty acid chains, and a phosphate-containing group.
Plasma membranes have proteins and cholesterol embedded in them.
- These proteins can act as receptors. This means that the cell can respond to the external environment of the cell.

Function of the plasma membrane

The plasma membrane controls the passage of organic molecules, ions, water, and oxygen into and out of the cell.
Waste products (e.g. carbon dioxide and ammonia) leave the cell by passing through the plasma membrane.

Structure of the cytoplasm

Cytoplasm is made up of organelles suspended in the gel-like cytosol.
- 70% of the cytoplasm is made up of water.
- The cytoplasm also contains proteins, sugars, ions and fatty acids.

Functions of the cytoplasm

Many metabolic reactions take place in the cytoplasm.
Different organelles perform specific functions within the cytoplasm.
- It is important to remember that organelles are parts of a cell.
Organelles are NOT cells even though they often surrounded by membranes.

The Nucleus

The nucleus is a big organelle that contains the cell’s DNA. It is surrounded by a nuclear envelope.

Structure of the nuclear envelope

The nuclear envelope is a double-membrane structure that has a number of pores.
Both the inner and outer membranes of the nuclear envelope are phospholipid bilayers.

Function of the nuclear envelope

The pores in the nuclear envelope control the passage of ions, molecules and RNA between the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm.

Structure of the nucleus

The nucleoplasm is the semi-solid fluid inside the nucleus, where we find the chromatin and the nucleolus.
In eukaryotes, the nucleus contains linear chromosomes that are made up of DNA.
There is an area within the nucleus called the nucleolus (plural = nucleoli).

Function of the nucleus

The nucleus controls the actions of the cell.
DNA in the nucleus contains instructions for the synthesis of proteins.
Ribosomal RNA is joined together with associated proteins in the nucleolus to assemble the ribosomal subunits.

Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

Mitochondria produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) via aerobic respiration. Chloroplasts are plant cell organelles that carry out photosynthesis.

Structure of mitochondria

Mitochondria are oval-shaped, double-membrane organelles that have their own ribosomes and DNA.
Each membrane is a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins.
- The inner layer of the membrane has folds called cristae.
The area surrounded by the folds is called the mitochondrial matrix.
- The mitochondrial matrix contains enzymes used for respiration.

Function of mitochondria

Mitochondria make ATP via aerobic respiration.
- Muscle cells have a very high concentration of mitochondria because they are highly active and need a lot of energy to keep the body moving.

Structure of chloroplasts

Chloroplasts have their own DNA, ribosomes and have inner and outer membranes.
The space enclosed by the inner membrane contains a set of interconnected and stacked fluid-filled membrane sacs called thylakoids.
- Each stack of thylakoids is called a granum (plural = grana).
- Grana are linked by lamellae.
- Lamellae are flat, thin parts of thylakoid membrane.
The fluid enclosed by the inner membrane that surrounds the grana is called the stroma.

Function of chloroplasts

Photosynthesis is the series of reactions that use carbon dioxide, water and light energy to make glucose and oxygen.
This process happens in chloroplasts and allows plants to make their own food (e.g. sugars).
Chloroplasts are found in plant and algal cells but not in animal or fungal cells.

1Unity & Diversity - Molecules

1.1Water

1.1.1Water & Hydrogen Bonding

1.1.2IB Multiple Choice - Water & Hydrogen Bonding

1.1.3Extended Response - Water

1.2DNA Structure & Replication

1.2.1DNA

1.2.2RNA

1.2.3DNA Replication

1.2.4DNA Replication - Summary

1.2.5IB Multiple Choice - DNA Replication

1.3Transcription & Gene Expression

1.3.1Introduction to Transcription & Protein Synthesis

1.3.2Types of RNA

1.3.3Transcription

1.3.4RNA Processing in Eukaryotes

1.3.5IB Multiple Choice - Transcription

1.4Translation

1.4.1Translation

1.4.2Retroviruses

1.4.3Scientific Practices: Coronavirus

1.4.4IB Multiple Choice - Translation

2Unity & Diversity - Cells

2.1The Origin of Cells

2.1.1Origins - Endosymbiosis

2.2Introduction to Cells

2.2.1Introduction to Cells

2.2.2Cell Size & Surface Area

2.2.3Surface Area to Volume Ratio

2.2.4Eukaryotic vs Prokaryotic Cells

2.2.5Stem Cells

2.2.6Stem Cells in Disease

2.3Ultrastructure of Cells

2.3.1Golgi, Lysosomes & Ribosomes

2.3.2Cell Walls & Vacuole

2.3.3Prokaryotes

2.3.4Binary Fission

2.4Cell Division

2.4.1The Cell Cycle

2.4.2Mitosis

2.4.3Regulation of the Cell Cycle

2.4.4End of Topic Quiz - The Cell Cycle

2.4.5IB Multiple Choice - The Cell Cycle

2.4.6Extended Response - Mitosis

2.5Structure of DNA & RNA

2.5.1DNA & RNA

2.6DNA Replication, Transcription & Translation

2.6.1Protein Synthesis

2.6.2Transcription & Translation

2.6.3End of Topic Test - DNA, Genes & Protein Synthesis

2.6.4Exam-Style Question - Protein Synthesis

2.6.5End of Topic Test - Coronavirus Translation

2.6.6IB Multiple Choice - Transcription

2.6.7IB Multiple Choice - Translation

2.7Cell Respiration

2.7.1Overview of Respiration

2.7.2Anaerobic Respiration

2.7.3End of Topic Test - Anaerobic Respiration

2.7.4Respiration Experiments

2.7.5End of Topic Test - Respiration

2.7.6IB Multiple Choice - Respiration

2.8Photosynthesis

2.8.1Overview of Photosynthesis

2.9Viruses

2.9.1Viruses

3Unity & Diversity - Organisms

3.1Diversity of Organisms

3.1.1Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance

3.1.2Chromosomal Basis of Inherited Disorders

3.1.3IB Multiple Choice - Chromosomal Inheritance

3.2Evidence for Evolution

3.2.1Evidence for Evolution - Fossils & DNA

3.2.2Evidence for Evolution - Anatomy & Geography

3.2.3IB Multiple Choice - Evidence for Evolution

3.2.4Extended Response - DNA & Evolution

3.3Natural Selection

3.3.1Introduction

3.3.2Evolutionary Fitness

3.3.3Natural Selection & Variation

3.3.4End of Topic Quiz - Natural Selection

3.3.5IB Multiple Choice - Natural Selection

3.3.6Speciation

4Unity & Diversity - Ecosystems

4.1Classification

4.1.1Introduction to Biodiversity

4.1.2Keystone Species

4.1.3Courtship & Ancestry

4.1.4Classification

4.2Cladistics

4.2.1Evolutionary Relationships

4.2.2IB Multiple Choice - Species & Taxonomy

4.3Evolution & Speciation

4.3.1Evidence for Evolution - Fossils & DNA

4.3.2Evidence for Evolution - Anatomy & Geography

4.3.3IB Multiple Choice - Evidence for Evolution

4.3.4Extended Response - DNA & Evolution

4.3.5Populations

4.3.6Mutations, Genetic Drift, & Gene Flow

4.3.7Speciation

4.3.8Rate of Speciation

4.3.9Allopatric & Sympatric Speciation

4.4Conservation of Biodiversity

4.4.1Coming Soon!

5Form & Function - Molecules

5.1Carbohydrates & Lipids

5.1.1Monosaccharides

5.1.2Disaccharides & Polysaccharides

5.1.3Triglycerides & Phospholipids

5.1.4Cellulose

5.1.5Starch & Glycogen

5.2Proteins

5.2.1Structure & Functions of Proteins

6Form & Function - Cells

6.1Membranes & Membrane Transport

6.1.1Passive Movement Across Membranes

6.1.2Active Movement Across Membranes

6.1.3Endocytosis & Exocystosis

6.1.4Cell Membrane Structure & Permeability

6.2Organelles & Compartmentalization

6.2.1Eukaryotic Cells & Organelles

6.2.2Subcellular Components & Organelles

6.3Cell Specialization

6.3.1Cell Specialization

7Form & Function - Organisms

7.1Gas Exchange

7.1.1Lung Structure & Alveoli

7.1.2Ventilation

7.1.3Lung Disease

7.1.4Lung Disease Data

7.2Transport

7.2.1The Circulatory System

7.2.2The Heart

7.2.3Blood Vessels

7.2.4Cardiovascular Disease

7.2.5Xylem Structure

7.2.6Cohesion-Tension Theory

7.2.7Investigating Transpiration Rate

7.2.8Phloem Structure

7.2.9Translocation

7.3Muscle & Motility

7.3.1Skeletal Muscle

7.3.2Sliding Filament Theory

7.3.3Contraction

8Form & Function - Ecosystems

8.1Species, Communities & Ecosytems

8.1.1Population Dynamics

8.1.2Communities & Measuring Diversity

8.1.3Relationships Between Populations

8.1.4Overview of Ecosystems

8.1.5Nutrient Cycles

8.1.6Fertilisers

8.1.7Eutrophication

8.1.8Chi-Squared Test

8.2Energy Flow

8.2.1Energy

8.2.2Energy Flow

8.2.3Biomass & Food Chains

8.2.4Heterotrophs & Autotrophs

8.3Carbon Cycle

8.3.1Carbon Cycle

8.4Climate Change

8.4.1Carbon Dioxide

8.4.2The Greenhouse Effect

8.4.3Global Warming

8.4.4Maintaining Biodiversity

9Interaction & Interdependence - Molecules

9.1Enzymes

9.1.1Enzymes

9.1.2Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

9.1.3Enzyme-Controlled Reactions

9.1.4End of Topic Test - Enzymes

9.2Metabolism

9.2.1Molecules to Metabolism

9.3Cell Respiration

9.3.1Glycolysis

9.3.2Aerobic Respiration

9.4Photosynthesis

9.4.1Light-Dependent Reaction

9.4.2Light-Independent Reaction

9.4.3End of Topic Test - Photosynthesis Reactions

9.4.4Limiting Factors

9.4.5Photosynthesis Experiments

9.4.6End of Topic Test - Photosynthesis

9.4.7End of Topic Test - Photosynthesis

10Interaction & Interdependence - Cells

10.1Chemical Signalling

10.1.1Coming Soon!

10.2Neural Signalling

10.2.1Medical Application

10.2.2Speed of Transmission

10.2.3Synapses

10.2.4End of Topic Test - Nervous Comm&Coord

10.2.5Neuron Structure

10.2.6Types of Synapse

10.2.7End of Topic Test - Neurones & Action Potentials

10.2.8Transmission of an Impulse

10.2.9End of Topic Test - Synapses

10.3Adaptation to Environment

10.3.1Coming Soon!

10.4Ecological Niches

10.4.1Coming Soon!

11Interaction & Interdependence - Organisms

11.1Integration of Body Systems

11.1.1Plant Tropisms

11.2Defence Against Disease

11.2.1Immune System

11.2.2The Immune Response

11.2.3Antibodies

11.2.4Primary & Secondary Response

11.2.5Vaccines

11.2.6HIV

11.2.7End of Topic Test - Immune System

12Interaction & Interdependence - Ecosystems

12.1Populations & Communities

12.1.1Coming Soon!

12.2Transfers of Energy & Matter

12.2.1Coming Soon!

13Continuity & Change - Molecules

13.1DNA Replication

13.1.1DNA Replication

13.2Protein Synthesis

13.2.1Protein Synthesis

13.2.2Transcription & Translation

13.2.3End of Topic Test - DNA, Genes & Protein Synthesis

13.3Mutation & Gene Editing

13.3.1Genes

13.3.2Mutations

13.3.3DNA Technology

13.3.4PCR & Gel Electrophoresis

13.3.5Genetic Modification

13.3.6Cloning

14Continuity & Change - Cells

14.1Gene Expression

14.1.1Introduction to Transcription & Protein Synthesis

14.1.2Types of RNA

14.1.3Transcription

14.1.4RNA Processing in Eukaryotes

14.1.5IB Multiple Choice - Transcription

14.2Water Potential

14.2.1Controlling Blood Water Potential

15Continuity & Change - Organisms

15.1Inheritance

15.1.1Non-Nuclear Inheritance

15.1.2Linked Genes

15.1.3IB Multiple Choice - Non-Mendelian Genetics

15.1.4Extended Response - Inheritance

15.1.5Introduction to Non-Mendelian Inheritance

15.1.6Chi-Squared Test

15.1.7End of Topic Quiz - Inheritance

15.1.8Sex-Linked Genes

15.1.9Grade 4-5 (Scientific Practices) - Inheritance

15.2Homeostasis

15.2.1Overview of Homeostasis

15.2.2Blood Glucose Concentration

15.2.3Controlling Blood Glucose Concentration

15.2.4End of Topic Test - Blood Glucose

15.2.5Type I & Type II Diabetes

15.2.6Human Reproductive Systems

15.2.7Hormonal Control of the Menstrual Cycle

15.2.8Kidneys & Osmoregulation

16Continuity & Change - Ecosystems

16.1Natural Selection

16.1.1Natural Selection

16.2Stability & Change

16.2.1Coming Soon!

16.3Climate Change

16.3.1Carbon Dioxide

16.3.2The Greenhouse Effect

16.3.3Global Warming

16.3.4Maintaining Biodiversity

Jump to other topics