Elections & Incumbency

Incumbency and Elections

When the current president runs for election, they have a number of advantages over other candidates which increases their chance of re-election.

Incumbent president in primaries

When an incumbent president runs for re-election, primaries of the president’s party have little coverage.
The incumbent president will be re-elected to stand at the presidential election.
- Before the 1984 election President Ronald Reagan won 99% of the Republican primary vote.
- Before the 2004 election President George W. Bush won 98% of the Republican primary vote.

Challenge during primaries

If there is a strong challenge to the incumbent president in a primary it can harm the president in the presidential election as it shows a lack of support from their own party.
- President George. H. W. Bush was challenged by Pat Buchanan and won only 72% of the primary vote. President Bush lost the following 1992 presidential election.

Incumbency effect

The incumbent president has a strong chance of re-election for a second term as president.
- The president has strong name recognition with voters.
- He is likely to be better known than the candidate who they compete with.
- The president will have large funding to run their campaign because they are an established political candidate who is likely to have many supporting donors.

1Democracy & Participation

1.1Representative & Direct Democracy

1.1.1Direct Democracy

1.1.2Pros & Cons of Direct Democracy

1.1.3Representative Democracy

1.1.4Pros & Cons of Representative Democracy

1.1.5Comparing Types of Democracy

1.1.6Case for Democratic Reform

1.1.7End of Topic Test - Types of Democracy

1.1.8Top Grade AO3/4 - Types of Democracy

1.2Wider Franchise & Suffrage

1.2.1History of the UK Franchise

1.2.2Campaigns for Suffrage

1.2.3End of Topic Test - Franchise & Suffrage

1.3Pressure Groups & Other Influences

1.3.1Types of Pressure Group

1.3.2Functions of Pressure Groups

1.3.3How Pressure Groups Influence

1.3.4Case-Study Examples

1.3.5Other Collective Orgs & Groups

1.3.6End of Topic Test - Pressure Groups & Influences

1.3.7Application Questions - Pressure Groups

1.4Rights in Context

1.4.1Development of Rights in the UK

1.4.2The UK's Rights-Based Culture

1.4.3End of Topic Test - Rights in Context

2Political Parties

2.1How Political Parties Work

2.1.1Functions & Features of UK Political Parties

2.1.2Funding of UK Political Parties

2.1.3UK Funding Reform

2.1.4End of Topic Test - Political Parties

2.1.5Top Grade AO3/4 - Political Parties

2.2Established Political Parties

2.2.1The Conservative Party: History

2.2.2The Conservative Party: Recent Leaders

2.2.3The Labour Party

2.2.4The Liberal Democrat Party

2.2.5Ideas & Policies of UK Parties

2.2.6End of Topic Test - Established Parties

2.2.7Application Questions - Established Parties

2.3Emerging & Minor Political Parties

2.3.1Minority Parties

2.3.2Minority Parties Case Studies

2.3.3End of Topic Test - Minor Parties

2.4UK Political Parties in Context

2.4.1Different Party Systems

2.4.2Political Spectrum

2.4.3Factors Affecting Party Success

2.4.4End of Topic Test - Parties in Context

2.4.5Application Questions - Parties in Context

3Electoral Systems

3.1Different Electoral Systems

3.1.1FPTP & STV

3.1.2AMS & SV

3.1.3End of Topic Test - Electoral Systems

3.1.4Top Grade AO3/4 - Electoral Systems

3.2Referendums & How They Are Used

3.2.1Case For & Against Referendums

3.2.2End of Topic Test - Referendums

3.2.3A-A* (AO3/4) - Referendums

3.3Electoral System Analysis

3.3.1Electoral System Analysis

3.3.2End of Topic Test - System Analysis

3.3.3A-A* (AO3/4) - Electoral System Analysis

4Voting Behaviour & the Media

4.1General Election Case Studies

4.1.1Case Studies of Elections

4.1.2Factors Influencing Voting in Elections

4.1.3End of Topic Test - Case Studies & Factors

4.1.4A-A* (AO3/4) - Case Studies & Voting

4.2Media Influence

4.2.1Media Influence

4.2.2End of Topic Test - Media Influence

5Conservatism

5.1Conservatism: Core Ideas & Principles

5.1.1Pragmatism & Tradition

5.1.2Human Imperfection & Organic Society/State

5.1.3Authority & Hierarchy

5.1.4Paternalism

5.1.5Empiricism

5.1.6Anti-Permissiveness

5.1.7Radical Conservative Ideas

5.1.8End of Topic Test - Core Conservatism

5.2Conservatism: Differing Views & Tensions

5.2.1Traditional Conservatism

5.2.2One-Nation Conservatism

5.2.3New Right Conservatism

5.2.4End of Topic Test - Different Views

5.3Conservative Thinkers & Ideas

5.3.1Thomas Hobbes & Edmund Burke

5.3.2Michael Oakeshott & Ayn Rand

5.3.3Robert Nozick

5.3.4End of Topic Test - Conservative Thinkers

5.3.5A-A* (AO3/4) - Conservatism

6Liberalism

6.1Liberalism: Core Ideas & Principles

6.1.1Individualism & Freedom/Liberty

6.1.2The State & Rationalism

6.1.3Equality & Social Justice

6.1.4Liberal Democracy

6.1.5Other Important Liberal Ideas

6.1.6End of Topic Test - Liberalism

6.2Differing Views And Tensions Within Liberalism

6.2.1Classical Liberalism

6.2.2Modern Liberalism

6.2.3End of Topic Test - Tensions & Views

6.3Liberal Thinkers & Ideas

6.3.1John Locke & Mary Wollstonecraft

6.3.2John Stuart Mill & John Rawls

6.3.3Betty Friedan

6.3.4End of Topic Test - Thinkers & Ideas

6.3.5A-A* - Liberalism

7Socialism

7.1Socialism: Core Ideas & Principles

7.1.1Fraternity & Co-operation

7.1.2Capitalism & Common Ownership

7.1.3Communism

7.1.4Collectivism

7.1.5Common Humanity

7.1.6Equality

7.1.7Social Class & Workers' Control

7.1.8End of Topic Test - Socialism

7.2Differing Views And Tensions Within Socialism

7.2.1Differing Views And Tensions

7.2.2End of Topic Test - Views & Tensions

7.3Socialist Thinkers and Their Ideas

7.3.1Socialist Thinkers: Marx & Engels

7.3.2Socialist Thinkers: Webb & Luxemburg

7.3.3Socialist Thinkers: Crosland and Giddens

7.3.4End of Topic Test - Thinkers & Ideas

7.3.5A-A* (AO3/4) - Socialism

8The UK Constitution

8.1Nature & Sources of UK Constitution

8.1.1Development of the UK Constitution

8.1.2Nature of the UK Constitution

8.1.3Sources of the UK Constitution

8.1.4End of Topic Test - Nature & Sources

8.2Constitutional Change since 1997

8.2.1Constitutional Reform 1997-2010 1

8.2.2Constitutional Reform 1997-2010 2

8.2.3Constitutional Reform 2010-15 & Reforms Since 2015

8.2.4End of Topic Test - Reform

8.2.5Application Questions - Reform

8.3Role & Powers of Devolved UK Bodies

8.3.1Devolution in England & Scotland

8.3.2Devolution in Wales & Northern Ireland

8.3.3End of Topic Test - Devolution

8.4Debates on Constitutional Reform

8.4.1Constitutional Reform & Devolution

8.4.2Should the Constitution Be Codified?

8.4.3End of Topic Test - Reform Debates

8.4.4Application Questions - Codification & Devolution

9The UK Parliament

9.1Houses of Parliament

9.1.1Houses of Parliament

9.1.2Functions of the House of Commons

9.1.3Functions of the House of Lords

9.1.4End of Topic Test - Parliament

9.1.5Top Grade AO3/4 - Parliament

9.2Comparative Powers

9.2.1Comparative Powers of the Houses

9.2.2End of Topic Test - Comparative Powers

9.3Legislative Process

9.3.1Legislative Stages

9.3.2Law-Making in the two Houses

9.3.3End of Topic Test - Legislative Process

9.4Parliament & Executive Interactions

9.4.1Backbenchers

9.4.2Select Committees

9.4.3The Opposition

9.4.4Ministerial Question Time

9.4.5End of Topic Test - Parliament & Executive

9.4.6Application Questions - Parliament & Executive

10The Prime Minister & the Executive

10.1The Executive

10.1.1Structure of the Executive

10.1.2Roles of the Executive

10.1.3Powers of the Executive

10.1.4End of Topic Test - PM & Executive

10.2Ministerial Responsibility

10.2.1Individual Ministerial Responsibility

10.2.2Collective Ministerial Responsibility

10.2.3End of Topic Test - Ministerial Responsibility

10.3Prime Minister & the Cabinet

10.3.1Role of the Prime Minister

10.3.2Prime Minister's Powers

10.3.3Limits on the Prime Minister's Powers

10.3.4Role of the Cabinet

10.3.5Prime Minister & Cabinet: Relations

10.3.6Prime Minister & Cabinet: Balance of Power

10.3.7Prime Minister & Cabinet: Case Studies

10.3.8End of Topic Test - PM & Cabinet

10.3.9Top Grade AO3/4 - PM & Cabinet

11Relationships Between Government Branches

11.1The Supreme Court

11.1.1Role & Composition

11.1.2Principles & Influence of the Supreme Court

11.1.3End of Topic Test - Supreme Court

11.2Parliament & Executive Relations

11.2.1Parliament & Executive: Questions

11.2.2Parliament & Executive: Committees

11.2.3Parliament & Executive: Voting

11.2.4Executive Dominance Over Parliament

11.2.5Balance of Power

11.2.6End of Topic Test - Parliament & Executive

11.2.7A-A* (AO3/4) - Relationships Between Government

11.3The European Union & the UK

11.3.1Aims & Policy Making of the European Union

11.3.2End of Topic Test - EU & UK

11.4Sovereignty in the UK Political System

11.4.1Sovereignty in the UK Political System

11.4.2End of Topic Test - Sovereignty

12US Constitution & Federalism

12.1Nature of the US Constitution

12.1.1Nature of the US Constitution

12.1.2Nature: Positives & Negatives

12.1.3Constitutional Framework

12.1.4The Amendment Process

12.1.5End of Topic Test - Nature US Constitution

12.2Principles of the US Constitution

12.2.1Federalism

12.2.2Separation of Powers/Checks & Balances

12.2.3Bipartisanship

12.2.4Limited Government

12.2.5End of Topic Test - Constitutional Principles

12.3Federalism

12.3.1Main Characteristics

12.3.2Federal Government and the States

12.3.3End of Topic Test - Federalism

12.4Interpretations & Debates

12.4.1Democracy in the Constitution

12.4.2Federalism

12.4.3End of Topic Test - Debates

12.4.4A-A* (AO3/4) - US Constitution

13US Congress

13.1Structure of Congress

13.1.1Structure of Congress

13.1.2Distribution of Powers

13.1.3End of Topic Test - Congress Structure

13.2Functions of Congress

13.2.1Representation

13.2.2Legislative

13.2.3Oversight

13.2.4End of Topic Test - Functions of Congress

13.3Interpretations & Debates

13.3.1Changing Roles & Powers

13.3.2Changing Significance of Parties & of Powers

13.3.3End of Topic Test - Debates

13.3.4Application Questions - US Congress

14US Presidency

14.1Presidential Power

14.1.1Formal Sources of Presidential Power

14.1.2Informal Sources of Presidential Power

14.1.3Powers of Persuasion

14.1.4End of Topic Test - Presidential Power

14.2The Presidency

14.2.1President Relationship with Other Institutions

14.2.2Limitations on Presidential Power

14.2.3US Presidents Achieving Their Aims

14.2.4End of Topic Test - Presidency

14.3Interpretations & Debates of the US Presidency

14.3.1The Imperial Presidency

14.3.2The President in Foreign Policy

14.3.3End of Topic Test - Debates

14.3.4A-A* (AO3/4) - US Presidency

15US Supreme Court & Civil Rights

15.1Nature & Role of Supreme Court

15.1.1Nature & Role of the Supreme Court

15.1.2End of Topic Test - Nature & Role

15.2Supreme Court Appointment Process

15.2.1Appointment Process

15.2.2Supreme Court Membership

15.2.3End of Topic Test - Appointments

15.3The Supreme Court & Public Policy

15.3.1Supreme Court & Public Policy

15.3.2End of Topic Test - Public Policy

15.4Protection of Civil Liberties & Rights

15.4.1Protection of Civil Liberties & Rights

15.4.2Race & Rights in Contemporary US Politics

15.4.3End of Topic Test - Rights & Liberties

15.5Debates & Interpretations of the Supreme Court

15.5.1Political Nature of the Supreme Court

15.5.2Judicial Interpretation

15.5.3Supreme Court Checks & Balances

15.5.4End of Topic Test - Debates

15.5.5Application Questions - The Supreme Court

16US Democracy & Participation

16.1Presidential Elections

16.1.1Presidential Elections

16.1.2Primaries

16.1.3National Party Conventions

16.1.4End of Topic Test - Presidential Elections

16.2Electoral College

16.2.1Electoral College System

16.2.2Reforms

16.2.3End of Topic Test - Electoral College

16.3Electoral Campaigns

16.3.1Issues in Elections

16.3.2End of Topic Test - Campaigns

16.4Incumbency

16.4.1Elections & Incumbency

16.4.2End of Topic Test - Incumbency

16.4.3A-A* (AO3/4) - Elections & Electoral College

16.5Democrats & Republicans

16.5.1National & State Level Organisation

16.5.2Democratic & Republican Policies

16.5.3Changing Party Significance

16.5.4End of Topic Test - Democrats & Republicans

16.6Internal Conflict & Ideology

16.6.1Types of Democrats

16.6.2Types of Republicans

16.6.3End of Topic Test - Internal Conflict

16.7Support & Demographics

16.7.1Coalition of Supporters

16.7.2End of Topic Test - Party Support

16.8Interest Groups

16.8.1Political Significance of Interest Groups

16.8.2Interest Group Influence & Impact on Democracy

16.8.3End of Topic Test - Interest Groups

16.8.4Application Questions - Parties, Ideology & Groups

17Comparing Democracies

17.1Theoretical Approaches

17.1.1Theoretical Approaches

17.1.2End of Topic Test - Approaches

17.2UK & USA Similarities & Differences

17.2.1Constitution: Nature

17.2.2Constitution: Provisions & Principles

17.2.3Federal System & Devolution

17.2.4Legislative: Lower Houses of Government

17.2.5Legislative: Upper Houses of Government

17.2.6Legislative: Powers & Functions

17.2.7Executive

17.2.8Supreme Court

17.2.9Supreme Court: Judicial Independence

17.2.10Civil Rights

17.2.11Civil Rights: Interest Groups

17.2.12Party Systems & Parties

17.2.13Campaign Finance & Pressure Groups

17.2.14End of Topic Test - Comparing UK & US

17.2.15Application Questions - UK & USA

18Feminism

18.1Feminism: Core Ideas & Principles

18.1.1Context of Feminism

18.1.2Sex & Gender

18.1.3Patriarchy & The Personal is the Political

18.1.4Difference, Egalitarian & Intersectionality

18.1.5Key Themes

18.1.6End of Topic Test - Core Ideas & Principles

18.2Different Types of Feminism

18.2.1The Waves of Feminism

18.2.2Socialist & Radical Feminism

18.2.3Post-Modern Feminism

18.2.4End of Topic Test - Different Types of Feminism

18.3Feminist Thinkers & Their Ideas

18.3.1Charlotte Gilman & Simone de Beauvoir

18.3.2Kate Millett

18.3.3Sheila Rowbotham & bell hooks

18.3.4End of Topic Test - Feminist Thinkers & Ideas

18.3.5A-A* (AO3/4) - Feminism

19Nationalism

19.1Nationalism: Core Ideas & Principles

19.1.1Nations & Self-Determination

19.1.2Nation-States & Culturalism

19.1.3Racialism & Internationalism

19.1.4Civic & Ethnic Nationalism

19.1.5Liberal & Socialist Internationalism

19.1.6Key Themes

19.1.7End of Topic Test - Core Ideas & Principles

19.2Different Types of Nationalism

19.2.1Liberal & Conservative Nationalism

19.2.2Post-Colonial & Expansionist Nationalism

19.2.3Progressive & Regressive Nationalism

19.2.4Inclusive & Exclusive Nationalism

19.2.5End of Topic Test -Different Types of Nationalism

19.3Nationalist Thinkers & Their Ideas

19.3.1Jean-Jacques Rousseau & Gottfried von Herder

19.3.2Giuseppe Mazzini & Charles Maurras

19.3.3Marcus Garvey

19.3.4End of Topic Test - Nationalist Thinkers & Ideas

19.3.5A-A* (AO3/4) - Nationalism

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