Gas Chromatography (A2 Only)

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Gas Chromatography

Gas chromatography (GC) is another type of chromatography.

Experimental setup

A column is packed with a solid.
A mixture of the vaporised sample is passed through the column in an inert carrier gas under pressure at high temperature.
The sample needs to be a gas, liquid or volatile solid to be carried through the column.
The high temperature causes the sample to vaporise.

Mobile and stationary phases

The mobile phase is the inert carrier gas.
The stationary phase is the solid in the column.
The most volatile substances will elute from the column first as they will spend more time in the mobile phase.

GC-MS

GC-MS is gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry.

Use of a mass spectrometer

Mass spectrometry identifies the components of a mixture from their m/z values.
It can analyse the substances in a mixture, but they must be separated first.
- So the GC can separate the substances in the mixture.
- The MS can then identify each substance eluted.

Adding a mass spectrometer

Mass spectrometry can be used alongside gas chromatography to increase the analysis of a substance.
- It is simply done by attaching a mass spectrometer to the GC apparatus.

The two work well together

Gas chromatography is good at separating substances in a mixture but bad at identification.
Mass spectrometry cannot separate substances but is very good at identifying them.
- The two can be used together to play to both of their strengths.

The process in GC-MS

A mixture is added to the gas chromatographer as usual.
Each substance eluted from the GC is then directly analysed by a mass spectrometer using their m/z values.

1Physical Chemistry

1.1Atomic Structure

1.1.1Fundamental Particles

1.1.2Isotopes & Mass Number

1.1.3Mass Spectrometry

1.1.4Electron Shells, Sub-Shells & Orbitals

1.1.5Electron Configuration

1.1.6Ionisation Energy

1.1.7Factors Affecting Ionisation Energies

1.1.8Trends of Ionisation

1.1.9Specific Impacts on Ionisation Energies

1.1.10End of Topic Test - Atomic Structure

1.1.11A-A* (AO3/4) - Atomic Structure

1.2Amount of Substance

1.2.1Relative Masses

1.2.2The Mole

1.2.3The Ideal Gas Equation

1.2.4Empirical & Molecular Formulae

1.2.5Balanced Equations

1.2.6Percentage Yield

1.2.7A-A* (AO3/4) - Percentage Yield

1.2.8Atom Economy

1.2.9End of Topic Test - Amount of Substance

1.2.10A-A* (AO3/4) - Substances & Yield

1.3Bonding

1.3.1Ionic Bonding

1.3.2Covalent & Dative Bonding

1.3.3Carbon Structures

1.3.4Metallic Bonding

1.3.5Physical Properties

1.3.6Shapes of Molecules

1.3.7Polarity

1.3.8Intermolecular Forces

1.3.9Intermolecular Forces 2

1.3.10End of Topic Test - Bonding

1.3.11Exam-Style Question - Shape of Molecules

1.3.12A-A* (AO3/4) - Bonding

1.4Energetics

1.4.1Enthalpy Changes

1.4.2Calorimetry

1.4.3Hess' Law

1.4.4Bond Enthalpies

1.4.5End of Topic Test - Energetics

1.5Kinetics

1.5.1Collision Theory

1.5.2Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution

1.5.3Increasing Rates

1.5.4End of Topic Test - Kinetics

1.6Equilibria

1.6.1Le Chatelier

1.6.2Equilibrium Constants

1.6.3A-A* (AO3/4) - Energetics, Kinetics, Equilibria

1.6.4End of Topic Test - Equilibria

1.7Redox

1.7.1Redox

1.7.2End of Topic Test - Redox

2Physical Chemistry 2 (A2 Only)

2.1Thermodynamics (A2 Only)

2.1.1Born-Haber Cycles (A2 Only)

2.1.2Born-Haber Cycle Calculations (A2 Only)

2.1.3Entropy (A2 Only)

2.1.4Free Energy (A2 Only)

2.1.5End of Topic Test - Thermodynamics

2.1.6A-A* (AO3/4) - Thermodynamics

2.2Rate Equations (A2 Only)

2.2.1Rate Equations (A2 Only)

2.2.2Rate Equations 2 (A2 Only)

2.2.3The Arrhenius Equation (A2 Only)

2.2.4Experimental Methods for Rates (A2 Only)

2.2.5End of Topic Test - Rate Equations

2.2.6Exam-Style Question - Rates

2.2.7A-A* (AO3/4) - Rate Equations

2.3The Equilibrium Constant Kp (A2 Only)

2.3.1Properties of Kp (A2 Only)

2.4Electrochemical Cells (A2 Only)

2.4.1Electrochemical Cells (A2 Only)

2.4.2Electrochemical Series (A2 Only)

2.4.3Commercial Application (A2 Only)

2.4.4End of Topic Test - Kp & Electrochemistry

2.4.5A-A* (AO3/4) - Electrochemical Cells

2.5Acids & Bases (A2 Only)

2.5.1Brønsted-Lowry Acids & Bases (A2 Only)

2.5.2pH (A2 Only)

2.5.3The Ionic Product of Water (A2 Only)

2.5.4Weak Acids & Bases (A2 Only)

2.5.5pH Curves & Titrations (A2 Only)

2.5.6pH Curves & Titrations 2 (A2 Only)

2.5.7Buffer Solutions (A2 Only)

2.5.8End of Topic Test - Acids & Bases

2.5.9Exam-Style Question - Weak Acids

2.5.10A-A* (AO3/4) - Acids & Bases

3Inorganic Chemistry

3.1Periodicity & Trends

3.1.1The Periodic Table

3.1.2Trends in the Periodic Table

3.1.3End of Topic Test - Periodicity & Trends

3.2Group 2

3.2.1Group 2 Chemistry

3.2.2End of Topic Test - Group 2

3.3Group 7

3.3.1Introduction to Halogens

3.3.2Reactions of Halogens

3.3.3Chlorine & Chlorate(I)

3.3.4End of Topic Test - Group 7

3.3.5Exam-Style Question - Group 7

3.3.6A-A* (AO3/4) - Periodicity, Group 2 & 7

4Inorganic Chemistry 2 (A2 Only)

4.1Period 3 (A2 Only)

4.1.1Period 3 Elements & Oxides (A2 Only)

4.1.2Period 3 Oxides (A2 Only)

4.1.3End of Topic Test - Period 3

4.2Transition Metals (A2 Only)

4.2.1General Properties (A2 Only)

4.2.2Substitution Reactions (A2 Only)

4.2.3Shapes of Complex Ions (A2 Only)

4.2.4Colours of Ions (A2 Only)

4.2.5Variable Oxidation States (A2 Only)

4.2.6Titrations (A2 Only)

4.2.7Homogeneous Catalysts (A2 Only)

4.2.8Heterogeneous Catalysts (A2 Only)

4.2.9End of Topic Test - Transition Metals

4.2.10A-A* (AO3/4) - Transition Metals

4.3Reactions of Ions in Aqueous Solutions (A2 Only)

4.3.1Acidity (A2 Only)

4.3.2Identification (A2 Only)

4.3.3End of Topic Test - Reactions of Ions in Solution

5Organic Chemistry 1

5.1Introduction

5.1.1Naming Conventions

5.1.2Mechanism

5.1.3Isomerism

5.1.4End of Topic Test - Introduction to Organic Chem

5.2Alkanes

5.2.1Fractional Distillation

5.2.2Cracking

5.2.3Combustion

5.2.4Chlorination

5.2.5End of Topic Test - Alkanes

5.3Halogenoalkanes

5.3.1Substitution Reactions

5.3.2Elimination Reactions

5.3.3Ozone Depletion

5.3.4End of Topic Test - Halogenoalkanes

5.4Alkenes

5.4.1Introduction to Alkenes

5.4.2Reactions of Alkenes

5.4.3Polymerisation Reactions

5.4.4Properties of Polymers

5.4.5End of Topic Test - Alkenes

5.5Alcohols

5.5.1Production of Alcohols

5.5.2Oxidation of Alcohols

5.5.3Oxidation of Alcohols - 2

5.5.4Elimination Reactions

5.5.5End of Topic Test - Alcohols

5.5.6Exam-Style Question - Alcohols

5.6Organic Analysis

5.6.1Reactions

5.6.2Reactions 2

5.6.3Mass Spectrometry

5.6.4Infrared Spectroscopy

5.6.5End of Topic Test - Organic Analysis

5.7A-A* (AO3/4) - Organic 1

5.7.1A-A* (AO3/4) - Organic 1

6Organic Chemistry 2 (A2 Only)

6.1Optical Isomerism (A2 Only)

6.1.1Optical Isomerism (A2 Only)

6.1.2End of Topic Test - Optical Isomerism

6.2Aldehydes & Ketones (A2 Only)

6.2.1Aldehydes & Ketones (A2 Only)

6.2.2End of Topic Test - Aldehydes & Ketones

6.3Carboxylic Acids & Esters (A2 Only)

6.3.1Acids & Esters (A2 Only)

6.3.2Acylation (A2 Only)

6.3.3End of Topic Test - Carboxylic Acids & Esters

6.4Aromatic Chemistry (A2 Only)

6.4.1Structure & Reactivity (A2 Only)

6.4.2Reactions of Benzene (A2 Only)

6.4.3End of Topic Test - Aromatic Chemistry

6.5Amines (A2 Only)

6.5.1Nature & Preparation of Amines (A2 Only)

6.5.2Basicity & Nucleophilicity (A2 Only)

6.5.3End of Topic Test - Amines

6.6Polymers (A2 Only)

6.6.1Condensation Polymers (A2 Only)

6.6.2Biodegradability (A2 Only)

6.7Biological Organic (A2 Only)

6.7.1Amino Acids (A2 Only)

6.7.2Proteins (A2 Only)

6.7.3DNA (A2 Only)

6.7.4Anti-Cancer Drugs (A2 Only)

6.7.5End of Topic Test - Biological Organic

6.8Organic Synthesis (A2 Only)

6.8.1Organic Synthesis (A2 Only)

6.8.2Examples of Synthetic Routes (A2 Only)

6.8.3End of Topic Test - Polymers & Organic Synthesis

6.9NMR Spectroscopy (A2 Only)

6.9.1Understanding NMR (A2 Only)

6.9.2Carbon-13 NMR (A2 Only)

6.9.3Hydrogen-1 NMR (A2 Only)

6.9.4Hydrogen-1 NMR 2 (A2 Only)

6.9.5End of Topic Test - NMR

6.10Chromatography (A2 Only)

6.10.1Overview of Chromatography (A2 Only)

6.10.2Thin-Layer Chromatography (A2 Only)

6.10.3Column Chromatography (A2 Only)

6.10.4Gas Chromatography (A2 Only)

6.10.5End of Topic Test - Chromatography

6.11A-A* (AO3/4) - Organic 2

6.11.1A-A* (AO3/4) - Organic 2

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