8.2.6
Ethics
Ethics
Ethics
Ethics is a very important and controversial topic in psychology - participants must consent to all that they could be subjected to and sometimes animal subject must be used instead.
Ethics in psychology
Ethics in psychology
- Today, scientists agree that good research is ethical in nature and is guided by a basic respect for human dignity and safety.
- But this has not always been the case.
- Modern researchers must show that the research they perform is ethically sound.
- Any experiment involving the participation of human subjects is governed by extensive, strict guidelines designed to make sure that the experiment does not result in harm.
Consent
Consent
- Each participant must sign an informed consent form before they can participate in the experiment.
- An informed consent form provides a written description of what participants can expect during the experiment, including potential risks and implications of the research.
- It also lets participants know that their involvement is completely voluntary and can be discontinued without penalty at any time.
Consent cont.
Consent cont.
- Furthermore, the informed consent guarantees that any data collected in the experiment will remain completely confidential.
- If a research participant is under the age of 18, their parents or legal guardians are required to sign the informed consent form.
Deception
Deception
- While the informed consent form should be as honest as possible, sometimes deception is necessary to prevent participants’ knowledge of the exact research question from affecting the results of the study.
- Deception involves purposely misleading experiment participants to maintain the integrity of the experiment, but not to the point where the deception could be considered harmful.
- In cases where deception is involved, participants must receive a full debriefing upon conclusion of the study.
Animal studies
Animal studies
- Many psychologists conduct research involving animal subjects.
- Often, these researchers use rodents as the subjects of their experiments.
- This does not mean that animal researchers are immune to ethical concerns. The humane and ethical treatment of animal research subjects is a critical aspect of this type of research.
- Researchers must design their experiments to minimise any pain or distress experienced by animals serving as research subjects.
Code of Ethics
Code of Ethics
Researchers must follow a code of ethics, making sure that participants are treated with respect and not harmed.
Preventing harm
Preventing harm
- Researchers must follow a code of ethics.
- The purpose of these is to make sure that participants are treated with respect and not harmed.
- The British Psychology Society ethical guideline states that ‘Investigators have a primary responsibility to protect participants from physical and mental harm during the investigation’.
- The research should not put participants under unreasonable stress, or traumatise or humiliate them.
Preventing harm balance
Preventing harm balance
- But no investigation is risk free; the guiding principle is that risks should be no greater than the risks participants are exposed to in their normal lifestyles. Participants should be encouraged to contact the investigator after the research if they have any worries or concerns. The investigator has a responsibility to detect and remove any negative consequences of the research.
Informed consent
Informed consent
- Participants must give their consent to take part in research and this consent must be ‘informed’. This means that information must be made available on which to base a decision to participate or not.
- Participants should be told what they are letting themselves in for. Only then are they in a position to give informed consent.
Consent situations
Consent situations
- To study participants without consent would be ethically acceptable so long as what happens to the participants could just as likely happen to them in everyday life.
- E.g. observation in naturalistic setting such as bus queues. People in bus queues may be observed by anyone.
- In the case of young people under 16, consent should also be obtained from their parents.
Problem with informed consent
Problem with informed consent
- A major problem with informed consent is the possibility that the researcher will ‘give the game away’ and thus influence participants’ behaviour.
- As a result, a case can be made for withholding information, for example Milgram (1963) were telling the participants that the study was about obedience would have rendered the research pointless.
Participant data
Participant data
- Participant data also needs to be handled carefully. Their results should be kept securely, and any publication must preserve their anonymity (for example, not publishing participant names).
British Psychological Society
British Psychological Society
- In the UK, the British Psychological Society (BPS) provides an ethical code of conduct.
- This is the professional body for all types of psychologist, including psychology researchers.
Applying Ethical Standards in Research
Applying Ethical Standards in Research
When designing the methodology of their study, researchers must follow ethical procedures such as briefing and debriefing.
Ethical design
Ethical design
- Studies must be designed in such a way that they will not risk physical or psychological harm to participants beyond the risks that people experience in everyday life.
- The mild stress that comes with doing tasks such as memory tests are acceptable because they are similar to the stresses of school or university.
- Researchers usually ask permission to run a study by proposing it to their organisation’s ethics board.
Informed consent
Informed consent
- All participants must give their informed consent to take part in a study:
- This means that they don’t just give general agreement to participate, but must fully understand what they are agreeing to.
- Usually, this involves them being given an information sheet which briefs them on the aim of the study, how long it will take and what they will have to do.
- It is unethical to deceive participants. But it may be considered impossible to research an issue without some mild deception.
Consent form
Consent form
- After reading an information sheet, participants are then asked to sign a consent form.
- For some experiments, this may be done on a computer screen.
Withdrawal
Withdrawal
- Participants are allowed to stop and withdraw during the study any time they wish and for any reason, and must be aware of this fact.
Debriefing
Debriefing
- At the end of the study, participants are debriefed.
- At this point, they may be given more information about the study, including the hypothesis, and asked if they have any questions.
Late withdrawal
Late withdrawal
- A participant may decide at a later point that they wish to withdraw their consent.
- They must be told that they have a right to withdraw at any point, and should be given contact details so that they can withdraw retrospectively.
- If they do so, their data must be deleted.
Confidentiality
Confidentiality
- Participants in research must be anonymous and no personal details should be included in the study which would enable them to be identified.
- Any personal data collected must be securely stored and destroyed when no longer required as specified by Data Protection Act 2018 (GDPR).
- Protection from harm involves confidentiality.
Confidentiality - personal questions
Confidentiality - personal questions
- Participants may be asked personal questions. They must be told that there is no need to answer these questions and, if they do that their answers will be treated in confidence. That is, they should remain anonymous.
- Invasion of privacy can result in unease or distress.
- But certain laws, for example child protection, may overrule this, as a teacher has a duty to disclose anything related to child protection to the relevant authorities and cannot promise confidentiality to a student.
1Social Influence
1.1Social Influence
1.1.1Conformity
1.1.2Asch (1951)
1.1.3Sherif (1935)
1.1.4Conformity to Social Roles
1.1.5BBC Prison Study
1.1.6End of Topic Test - Conformity
1.1.7Obedience
1.1.8Analysing Milgram's Experiment
1.1.9Agentic State & Legitimate Authority
1.1.10Variables of Obedience
1.1.11Resistance to Social Influence
1.1.12Minority Influence & Social Change
1.1.13Minority Influence & Social Impact Theory
1.1.14End of Topic Test - Social Influences
1.1.15Exam-Style Question - Conformity
1.1.16Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Social Influence
2Memory
2.1Memory
2.1.1Multi-Store Model of Memory
2.1.2Short-Term vs Long-Term Memory
2.1.3Long-Term Memory
2.1.4Support for the Multi-Store Model of Memory
2.1.5Duration Studies
2.1.6Capacity Studies
2.1.7Coding Studies
2.1.8The Working Memory Model
2.1.9The Working Memory Model 2
2.1.10Support for the Working Memory Model
2.1.11Explanations for Forgetting
2.1.12Studies on Interference
2.1.13Cue-Dependent Forgetting
2.1.14Eye Witness Testimony - Loftus & Palmer
2.1.15Eye Witness Testimony Loftus
2.1.16Eyewitness Testimony - Post-Event Discussion
2.1.17Eyewitness Testimony - Age & Misleading Questions
2.1.18Cognitive Interview
2.1.19Cognitive Interview - Geiselman & Fisher
2.1.20End of Topic Test - Memory
2.1.21Exam-Style Question - Memory
2.1.22A-A* (AO3/4) - Memory
3Attachment
3.1Attachment
3.1.1Caregiver-Infant Interaction
3.1.2Condon & Sander (1974)
3.1.3Schaffer & Emerson (1964)
3.1.4Multiple Attachments
3.1.5Studies on the Role of the Father
3.1.6Animal Studies of Attachment
3.1.7Explanations of Attachment
3.1.8Attachment Types - Strange Situation
3.1.9Cultural Differences in Attachment
3.1.10Disruption of Attachment
3.1.11Disruption of Attachment - Privation
3.1.12Overcoming the Effects of Disruption
3.1.13The Effects of Institutionalisation
3.1.14Early Attachment
3.1.15Critical Period of Attachment
3.1.16End of Topic Test - Attachment
3.1.17Exam-Style Question - Attachment
3.1.18Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Attachment
4(2026 Exams) Psychopathology
4.1Psychopathology
4.1.1Abnormality
4.1.2Abnormality 2
4.1.3Phobias, Depression & OCD
4.1.4Phobias: Behavioural Approach
4.1.5Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias
4.1.6Depression: Cognitive Approach
4.1.7OCD: Biological Approach
4.1.8Evidence for the Biological Approach
4.1.9End of Topic Test - Psychopathy
4.1.10Exam-Style Question - Phobias
4.1.11Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology
4.1.12Diagnostic Misconceptions - Phobia vs Fear
4.1.13Diagnostic Misconceptions - Depression & Self-Harm
4.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Desensitisation
5Approaches in Psychology
5.1Approaches in Psychology
5.1.1Psychology as a Science
5.1.2Origins of Psychology
5.1.3Reductionism & Problems with Introspection
5.1.4The Behaviourist Approach - Classical Conditioning
5.1.5Pavlov's Experiment
5.1.6Little Albert Study
5.1.7The Behaviourist Approach - Operant Conditioning
5.1.8Social Learning Theory
5.1.9The Cognitive Approach 1
5.1.10The Cognitive Approach 2
5.1.11The Biological Approach
5.1.12Gottesman (1991) - Twin Studies
5.1.13Brain Scanning
5.1.14Structure of Personality & Little Hans
5.1.15The Psychodynamic Approach (A2 only)
5.1.16Humanistic Psychology (A2 only)
5.1.17Aronoff (1957) (A2 Only)
5.1.18Rogers' Client-Centred Therapy (A2 only)
5.1.19End of Topic Test - Approaches in Psychology
5.1.20Exam-Style Question - Approaches in Psychology
5.2Comparison of Approaches (A2 only)
6Biopsychology
6.1Biopsychology
6.1.1Nervous System Divisions
6.1.2Neuron Structure & Function
6.1.3Neurotransmitters
6.1.4Endocrine System Function
6.1.5Fight or Flight Response
6.1.6The Brain (A2 only)
6.1.7Localisation of Brain Function (A2 only)
6.1.8Studying the Brain (A2 only)
6.1.9CIMT (A2 Only) & Postmortem Examinations
6.1.10Biological Rhythms (A2 only)
6.1.11Studies on Biological Rhythms (A2 Only)
6.1.12End of Topic Test - Biopsychology
6.1.13Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Biopsychology
6.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Plasticity & Recovery
6.1.15Diagnostic Misconceptions - Endogenous Pacemakers
7(2027 Exams) Clinical Psychology & Mental Health
7.1Clinical Psychology & Mental Health
7.1.1Deviation from Social Norms
7.1.2Deviation from Social Norms 2
7.1.3Phobias, Depression & OCD
7.1.4Phobias: Behavioural Approach
7.1.5Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias
7.1.6Depression: Cognitive Approach
7.1.7OCD: Biological Approach
7.1.8Evidence for the Biological Approach
7.1.9End of Topic Test - Psychopathy
7.1.10Exam-Style Question - Phobias
7.1.11Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology
7.1.12Diagnostic Misconceptions - Phobia vs Fear
7.1.13Diagnostic Misconceptions - Depression & Self-Harm
7.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Desensitisation
8Research Methods
8.1Research Methods
8.1.1Experimental Method
8.1.2Observational Techniques
8.1.3Covert, Overt & Controlled Observation
8.1.4Self-Report Techniques
8.1.5Correlations
8.1.6Exam-Style Question - Research Methods
8.1.7End of Topic Test - Research Methods
8.1.8Diagnostic Misconceptions - Sign Test
8.1.9Diagnostic Misconceptions - Content & Thematic
8.1.10Diagnostic Misconceptions - Valid vs Reliable
8.1.11Diagnostic Misconceptions - Confounding Variable
8.2Scientific Processes
8.2.1Aims, Hypotheses & Sampling
8.2.2Pilot Studies & Design
8.2.3Questionnaires
8.2.4Variables & Control
8.2.5Demand Characteristics & Investigator Effects
8.2.6Ethics
8.2.7Limitations of Ethical Guidelines
8.2.8Consent & Protection from Harm Studies
8.2.9Peer Review & The Economy
8.2.10Validity (A2 only)
8.2.11Reliability (A2 only)
8.2.12Features of Science (A2 only)
8.2.13Paradigms & Falsifiability (A2 only)
8.2.14Scientific Report (A2 only)
8.2.15Scientific Report 2 (A2 only)
8.2.16End of Topic Test - Scientific Processes
8.3Data Handling & Analysis
8.3.1Types of Data
8.3.2Descriptive Statistics
8.3.3Correlation
8.3.4Evaluation of Descriptive Statistics
8.3.5Presentation & Display of Data
8.3.6Levels of Measurement (A2 only)
8.3.7Content Analysis (A2 only)
8.3.8Case Studies (A2 only)
8.3.9Thematic Analysis (A2 only)
8.3.10End of Topic Test - Data Handling & Analysis
9Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
9.1Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
9.1.1Culture Bias
9.1.2Sub-Culture Bias
9.1.3Gender Bias
9.1.4Ethnocentrism
9.1.5Cross Cultural Research
9.1.6Free Will & Determinism
9.1.7Comparison of Free Will & Determinism
9.1.8Reductionism & Holism
9.1.9Reductionist & Holistic Approaches
9.1.10Nature-Nurture Debate
9.1.11Interactionist Approach
9.1.12Nature-Nurture Methods
9.1.13Nature-Nurture Approaches
9.1.14Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches
9.1.15Socially Sensitive Research
9.1.16End of Topic Test - Issues and Debates
10Option 1: Relationships (A2 only)
10.1Relationships: Sexual Relationships (A2 only)
10.1.1Sexual Selection & Human Reproductive Behaviour
10.1.2Intersexual & Intrasexual Selection
10.1.3Evaluation of Sexual Selection Behaviour
10.1.4Factors Affecting Attraction: Self-Disclosure
10.1.5Evaluation of Self-Disclosure Theory
10.1.6Self Disclosure in Computer Communication
10.1.7Factors Affecting Attraction: Physical Attributes
10.1.8Matching Hypothesis Studies
10.1.9Factors Affecting Physical Attraction
10.1.10Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 1
10.1.11Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 2
10.1.12Evaluation of Filter Theory
10.1.13End of Topic Test - Sexual Relationships
10.2Relationships: Romantic Relationships (A2 only)
10.2.1Social Exchange Theory
10.2.2Evaluation of Social Exchange Theory
10.2.3Equity Theory
10.2.4Evaluation of Equity Theory
10.2.5Rusbult’s Investment Model
10.2.6Evaluation of Rusbult's Investment Model
10.2.7Relationship Breakdown
10.2.8Studies on Relationship Breakdown
10.2.9Evaluation of Relationship Breakdown
10.2.10End of Topic Test - Romantic relationships
10.3Relationships: Virtual & Parasocial (A2 only)
11Option 1: Gender (A2 only)
11.1Gender (A2 only)
11.1.1Sex, Gender & Androgyny
11.1.2Gender Identity Disorder
11.1.3Biological & Social Explanations of GID
11.1.4Biological Influences on Gender
11.1.5Effects of Hormones on Gender
11.1.6End of Topic Test - Gender 1
11.1.7Kohlberg’s Theory of Gender Constancy
11.1.8Evaluation of Kohlberg's Theory
11.1.9Gender Schema Theory
11.1.10Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 1
11.1.11Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 2
11.1.12Social Approach to Gender Development
11.1.13Criticisms of Social Theory
11.1.14End of Topic Test - Gender 2
11.1.15Media Influence on Gender Development
11.1.16Cross Cultural Research
11.1.17Childcare & Gender Roles
11.1.18End of Topic Test - Gender 3
12Option 1: Cognition & Development (A2 only)
12.1Cognition & Development (A2 only)
12.1.1Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 1
12.1.2Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 2
12.1.3Schema Accommodation Assimilation & Equilibration
12.1.4Piaget & Inhelder’s Three Mountains Task (1956)
12.1.5Conservation & Class Inclusion
12.1.6Evaluation of Piaget
12.1.7End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 1
12.1.8Vygotsky
12.1.9Evaluation of Vygotsky
12.1.10Baillargeon
12.1.11Baillargeon's studies
12.1.12Evaluation of Baillargeon
12.1.13End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 2
12.1.14Sense of Self & Theory of Mind
12.1.15Baron-Cohen Studies
12.1.16Selman’s Five Levels of Perspective Taking
12.1.17Biological Basis of Social Cognition
12.1.18Evaluation of Biological Basis of Social Cognition
12.1.19Important Issues in Social Neuroscience
12.1.20End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 3
12.1.21Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Cognition & Development
13Option 2: Schizophrenia (A2 only)
13.1Schizophrenia: Diagnosis (A2 only)
13.2Schizophrenia: Treatment (A2 only)
13.2.1Family-Based Psychological Explanations
13.2.2Evaluation of Family-Based Explanations
13.2.3Cognitive Explanations
13.2.4Drug Therapies
13.2.5Evaluation of Drug Therapies
13.2.6Biological Explanations for Schizophrenia
13.2.7Dopamine Hypothesis
13.2.8End of Topic Test - Schizoprenia Treatment 1
13.2.9Psychological Therapies 1
13.2.10Psychological Therapies 2
13.2.11Evaluation of Psychological Therapies
13.2.12Interactionist Approach - Diathesis-Stress Model
13.2.13Interactionist Approach - Triggers & Treatment
13.2.14Evaluation of the Interactionist Approach
13.2.15End of Topic Test - Scizophrenia Treatments 2
13.2.16Diagnostic Misconceptions - CBT & CBTp
14Option 2: Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
14.1Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
14.1.1Explanations for Food Preferences
14.1.2Birch et al (1987) & Lowe et al (2004)
14.1.3Control of Eating Behaviours
14.1.4Control of Eating Behaviour: Leptin
14.1.5Biological Explanations for Anorexia Nervosa
14.1.6Psychological Explanations: Family Systems Theory
14.1.7Psychological Explanations: Social Learning Theory
14.1.8Psychological Explanations: Cognitive Theory
14.1.9Biological Explanations for Obesity
14.1.10Biological Explanations: Studies
14.1.11Psychological Explanations for Obesity
14.1.12Psychological Explanations: Studies
14.1.13End of Topic Test - Eating Behaviour
15Option 2: Stress (A2 only)
15.1Stress (A2 only)
15.1.1Physiology of Stress
15.1.2Role of Stress in Illness
15.1.3Role of Stress in Illness: Studies
15.1.4Social Readjustment Rating Scales
15.1.5Hassles & Uplifts Scales
15.1.6Stress, Workload & Control
15.1.7Stress Level Studies
15.1.8End of Topic Test - Stress 1
15.1.9Physiological Measures of Stress
15.1.10Individual Differences
15.1.11Stress & Gender
15.1.12Drug Therapy & Biofeedback for Stress
15.1.13Stress Inoculation Therapy
15.1.14Social Support & Stress
15.1.15End of Topic Test - Stress 2
16Option 3: Aggression (A2 only)
16.1Aggression: Physiological (A2 only)
16.1.1Neural Mechanisms
16.1.2Serotonin
16.1.3Hormonal Mechanisms
16.1.4Genetic Factors
16.1.5Genetic Factors 2
16.1.6End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 1
16.1.7Ethological Explanation
16.1.8Innate Releasing Mechanisms & Fixed Action Pattern
16.1.9Evolutionary Explanations
16.1.10Buss et al (1992) - Sex Differences in Jealousy
16.1.11Evaluation of Evolutionary Explanations
16.1.12End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 2
16.2Aggression: Social Psychological (A2 only)
16.2.1Social Psychological Explanation
16.2.2Buss (1963) - Frustration/Aggression
16.2.3Social Psychological Explanation 2
16.2.4Social Learning Theory (SLT) 1
16.2.5Social Learning Theory (SLT) 2
16.2.6Limitations of Social Learning Theory (SLT)
16.2.7Deindividuation
16.2.8Deindividuation 2
16.2.9Deindividuation - Diener et al (1976)
16.2.10End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology
16.2.11Institutional Aggression: Prisons
16.2.12Evaluation of Dispositional & Situational
16.2.13Influence of Computer Games
16.2.14Influence of Television
16.2.15Evaluation of Studies on Media
16.2.16Desensitisation & Disinhibition
16.2.17Cognitive Priming
16.2.18End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology
17Option 3: Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
17.1Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
17.1.1Defining Crime
17.1.2Measuring Crime
17.1.3Offender Profiling
17.1.4Evaluation of Offender Profiling
17.1.5John Duffy Case Study
17.1.6Biological Explanations 1
17.1.7Biological Explanations 2
17.1.8Evaluation of the Biological Explanation
17.1.9Cognitive Explanations
17.1.10Moral Reasoning
17.1.11Psychodynamic Explanation 1
17.1.12Psychodynamic Explanation 2
17.1.13End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 1
17.1.14Differential Association Theory
17.1.15Custodial Sentencing
17.1.16Effects of Prison
17.1.17Evaluation of the Effects of Prison
17.1.18Recidivism
17.1.19Behavioural Treatments & Therapies
17.1.20Effectiveness of Behavioural Treatments
17.1.21Restorative Justice
17.1.22End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 2
18Option 3: Addiction (A2 only)
18.1Addiction (A2 only)
18.1.1Definition
18.1.2Brain Neurochemistry Explanation
18.1.3Learning Theory Explanation
18.1.4Evaluation of a Learning Theory Explanation
18.1.5Cognitive Bias
18.1.6Griffiths on Cognitive Bias
18.1.7Evaluation of Cognitive Theory (A2 only)
18.1.8End of Topic Test - Addiction 1
18.1.9Gambling Addiction & Learning Theory
18.1.10Social Influences on Addiction 1
18.1.11Social Influences on Addiction 2
18.1.12Personal Influences on Addiction
18.1.13Genetic Explanations of Addiction
18.1.14End of Topic Test - Addiction 2
Jump to other topics
1Social Influence
1.1Social Influence
1.1.1Conformity
1.1.2Asch (1951)
1.1.3Sherif (1935)
1.1.4Conformity to Social Roles
1.1.5BBC Prison Study
1.1.6End of Topic Test - Conformity
1.1.7Obedience
1.1.8Analysing Milgram's Experiment
1.1.9Agentic State & Legitimate Authority
1.1.10Variables of Obedience
1.1.11Resistance to Social Influence
1.1.12Minority Influence & Social Change
1.1.13Minority Influence & Social Impact Theory
1.1.14End of Topic Test - Social Influences
1.1.15Exam-Style Question - Conformity
1.1.16Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Social Influence
2Memory
2.1Memory
2.1.1Multi-Store Model of Memory
2.1.2Short-Term vs Long-Term Memory
2.1.3Long-Term Memory
2.1.4Support for the Multi-Store Model of Memory
2.1.5Duration Studies
2.1.6Capacity Studies
2.1.7Coding Studies
2.1.8The Working Memory Model
2.1.9The Working Memory Model 2
2.1.10Support for the Working Memory Model
2.1.11Explanations for Forgetting
2.1.12Studies on Interference
2.1.13Cue-Dependent Forgetting
2.1.14Eye Witness Testimony - Loftus & Palmer
2.1.15Eye Witness Testimony Loftus
2.1.16Eyewitness Testimony - Post-Event Discussion
2.1.17Eyewitness Testimony - Age & Misleading Questions
2.1.18Cognitive Interview
2.1.19Cognitive Interview - Geiselman & Fisher
2.1.20End of Topic Test - Memory
2.1.21Exam-Style Question - Memory
2.1.22A-A* (AO3/4) - Memory
3Attachment
3.1Attachment
3.1.1Caregiver-Infant Interaction
3.1.2Condon & Sander (1974)
3.1.3Schaffer & Emerson (1964)
3.1.4Multiple Attachments
3.1.5Studies on the Role of the Father
3.1.6Animal Studies of Attachment
3.1.7Explanations of Attachment
3.1.8Attachment Types - Strange Situation
3.1.9Cultural Differences in Attachment
3.1.10Disruption of Attachment
3.1.11Disruption of Attachment - Privation
3.1.12Overcoming the Effects of Disruption
3.1.13The Effects of Institutionalisation
3.1.14Early Attachment
3.1.15Critical Period of Attachment
3.1.16End of Topic Test - Attachment
3.1.17Exam-Style Question - Attachment
3.1.18Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Attachment
4(2026 Exams) Psychopathology
4.1Psychopathology
4.1.1Abnormality
4.1.2Abnormality 2
4.1.3Phobias, Depression & OCD
4.1.4Phobias: Behavioural Approach
4.1.5Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias
4.1.6Depression: Cognitive Approach
4.1.7OCD: Biological Approach
4.1.8Evidence for the Biological Approach
4.1.9End of Topic Test - Psychopathy
4.1.10Exam-Style Question - Phobias
4.1.11Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology
4.1.12Diagnostic Misconceptions - Phobia vs Fear
4.1.13Diagnostic Misconceptions - Depression & Self-Harm
4.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Desensitisation
5Approaches in Psychology
5.1Approaches in Psychology
5.1.1Psychology as a Science
5.1.2Origins of Psychology
5.1.3Reductionism & Problems with Introspection
5.1.4The Behaviourist Approach - Classical Conditioning
5.1.5Pavlov's Experiment
5.1.6Little Albert Study
5.1.7The Behaviourist Approach - Operant Conditioning
5.1.8Social Learning Theory
5.1.9The Cognitive Approach 1
5.1.10The Cognitive Approach 2
5.1.11The Biological Approach
5.1.12Gottesman (1991) - Twin Studies
5.1.13Brain Scanning
5.1.14Structure of Personality & Little Hans
5.1.15The Psychodynamic Approach (A2 only)
5.1.16Humanistic Psychology (A2 only)
5.1.17Aronoff (1957) (A2 Only)
5.1.18Rogers' Client-Centred Therapy (A2 only)
5.1.19End of Topic Test - Approaches in Psychology
5.1.20Exam-Style Question - Approaches in Psychology
5.2Comparison of Approaches (A2 only)
6Biopsychology
6.1Biopsychology
6.1.1Nervous System Divisions
6.1.2Neuron Structure & Function
6.1.3Neurotransmitters
6.1.4Endocrine System Function
6.1.5Fight or Flight Response
6.1.6The Brain (A2 only)
6.1.7Localisation of Brain Function (A2 only)
6.1.8Studying the Brain (A2 only)
6.1.9CIMT (A2 Only) & Postmortem Examinations
6.1.10Biological Rhythms (A2 only)
6.1.11Studies on Biological Rhythms (A2 Only)
6.1.12End of Topic Test - Biopsychology
6.1.13Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Biopsychology
6.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Plasticity & Recovery
6.1.15Diagnostic Misconceptions - Endogenous Pacemakers
7(2027 Exams) Clinical Psychology & Mental Health
7.1Clinical Psychology & Mental Health
7.1.1Deviation from Social Norms
7.1.2Deviation from Social Norms 2
7.1.3Phobias, Depression & OCD
7.1.4Phobias: Behavioural Approach
7.1.5Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias
7.1.6Depression: Cognitive Approach
7.1.7OCD: Biological Approach
7.1.8Evidence for the Biological Approach
7.1.9End of Topic Test - Psychopathy
7.1.10Exam-Style Question - Phobias
7.1.11Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology
7.1.12Diagnostic Misconceptions - Phobia vs Fear
7.1.13Diagnostic Misconceptions - Depression & Self-Harm
7.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Desensitisation
8Research Methods
8.1Research Methods
8.1.1Experimental Method
8.1.2Observational Techniques
8.1.3Covert, Overt & Controlled Observation
8.1.4Self-Report Techniques
8.1.5Correlations
8.1.6Exam-Style Question - Research Methods
8.1.7End of Topic Test - Research Methods
8.1.8Diagnostic Misconceptions - Sign Test
8.1.9Diagnostic Misconceptions - Content & Thematic
8.1.10Diagnostic Misconceptions - Valid vs Reliable
8.1.11Diagnostic Misconceptions - Confounding Variable
8.2Scientific Processes
8.2.1Aims, Hypotheses & Sampling
8.2.2Pilot Studies & Design
8.2.3Questionnaires
8.2.4Variables & Control
8.2.5Demand Characteristics & Investigator Effects
8.2.6Ethics
8.2.7Limitations of Ethical Guidelines
8.2.8Consent & Protection from Harm Studies
8.2.9Peer Review & The Economy
8.2.10Validity (A2 only)
8.2.11Reliability (A2 only)
8.2.12Features of Science (A2 only)
8.2.13Paradigms & Falsifiability (A2 only)
8.2.14Scientific Report (A2 only)
8.2.15Scientific Report 2 (A2 only)
8.2.16End of Topic Test - Scientific Processes
8.3Data Handling & Analysis
8.3.1Types of Data
8.3.2Descriptive Statistics
8.3.3Correlation
8.3.4Evaluation of Descriptive Statistics
8.3.5Presentation & Display of Data
8.3.6Levels of Measurement (A2 only)
8.3.7Content Analysis (A2 only)
8.3.8Case Studies (A2 only)
8.3.9Thematic Analysis (A2 only)
8.3.10End of Topic Test - Data Handling & Analysis
9Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
9.1Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
9.1.1Culture Bias
9.1.2Sub-Culture Bias
9.1.3Gender Bias
9.1.4Ethnocentrism
9.1.5Cross Cultural Research
9.1.6Free Will & Determinism
9.1.7Comparison of Free Will & Determinism
9.1.8Reductionism & Holism
9.1.9Reductionist & Holistic Approaches
9.1.10Nature-Nurture Debate
9.1.11Interactionist Approach
9.1.12Nature-Nurture Methods
9.1.13Nature-Nurture Approaches
9.1.14Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches
9.1.15Socially Sensitive Research
9.1.16End of Topic Test - Issues and Debates
10Option 1: Relationships (A2 only)
10.1Relationships: Sexual Relationships (A2 only)
10.1.1Sexual Selection & Human Reproductive Behaviour
10.1.2Intersexual & Intrasexual Selection
10.1.3Evaluation of Sexual Selection Behaviour
10.1.4Factors Affecting Attraction: Self-Disclosure
10.1.5Evaluation of Self-Disclosure Theory
10.1.6Self Disclosure in Computer Communication
10.1.7Factors Affecting Attraction: Physical Attributes
10.1.8Matching Hypothesis Studies
10.1.9Factors Affecting Physical Attraction
10.1.10Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 1
10.1.11Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 2
10.1.12Evaluation of Filter Theory
10.1.13End of Topic Test - Sexual Relationships
10.2Relationships: Romantic Relationships (A2 only)
10.2.1Social Exchange Theory
10.2.2Evaluation of Social Exchange Theory
10.2.3Equity Theory
10.2.4Evaluation of Equity Theory
10.2.5Rusbult’s Investment Model
10.2.6Evaluation of Rusbult's Investment Model
10.2.7Relationship Breakdown
10.2.8Studies on Relationship Breakdown
10.2.9Evaluation of Relationship Breakdown
10.2.10End of Topic Test - Romantic relationships
10.3Relationships: Virtual & Parasocial (A2 only)
11Option 1: Gender (A2 only)
11.1Gender (A2 only)
11.1.1Sex, Gender & Androgyny
11.1.2Gender Identity Disorder
11.1.3Biological & Social Explanations of GID
11.1.4Biological Influences on Gender
11.1.5Effects of Hormones on Gender
11.1.6End of Topic Test - Gender 1
11.1.7Kohlberg’s Theory of Gender Constancy
11.1.8Evaluation of Kohlberg's Theory
11.1.9Gender Schema Theory
11.1.10Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 1
11.1.11Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 2
11.1.12Social Approach to Gender Development
11.1.13Criticisms of Social Theory
11.1.14End of Topic Test - Gender 2
11.1.15Media Influence on Gender Development
11.1.16Cross Cultural Research
11.1.17Childcare & Gender Roles
11.1.18End of Topic Test - Gender 3
12Option 1: Cognition & Development (A2 only)
12.1Cognition & Development (A2 only)
12.1.1Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 1
12.1.2Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 2
12.1.3Schema Accommodation Assimilation & Equilibration
12.1.4Piaget & Inhelder’s Three Mountains Task (1956)
12.1.5Conservation & Class Inclusion
12.1.6Evaluation of Piaget
12.1.7End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 1
12.1.8Vygotsky
12.1.9Evaluation of Vygotsky
12.1.10Baillargeon
12.1.11Baillargeon's studies
12.1.12Evaluation of Baillargeon
12.1.13End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 2
12.1.14Sense of Self & Theory of Mind
12.1.15Baron-Cohen Studies
12.1.16Selman’s Five Levels of Perspective Taking
12.1.17Biological Basis of Social Cognition
12.1.18Evaluation of Biological Basis of Social Cognition
12.1.19Important Issues in Social Neuroscience
12.1.20End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 3
12.1.21Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Cognition & Development
13Option 2: Schizophrenia (A2 only)
13.1Schizophrenia: Diagnosis (A2 only)
13.2Schizophrenia: Treatment (A2 only)
13.2.1Family-Based Psychological Explanations
13.2.2Evaluation of Family-Based Explanations
13.2.3Cognitive Explanations
13.2.4Drug Therapies
13.2.5Evaluation of Drug Therapies
13.2.6Biological Explanations for Schizophrenia
13.2.7Dopamine Hypothesis
13.2.8End of Topic Test - Schizoprenia Treatment 1
13.2.9Psychological Therapies 1
13.2.10Psychological Therapies 2
13.2.11Evaluation of Psychological Therapies
13.2.12Interactionist Approach - Diathesis-Stress Model
13.2.13Interactionist Approach - Triggers & Treatment
13.2.14Evaluation of the Interactionist Approach
13.2.15End of Topic Test - Scizophrenia Treatments 2
13.2.16Diagnostic Misconceptions - CBT & CBTp
14Option 2: Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
14.1Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
14.1.1Explanations for Food Preferences
14.1.2Birch et al (1987) & Lowe et al (2004)
14.1.3Control of Eating Behaviours
14.1.4Control of Eating Behaviour: Leptin
14.1.5Biological Explanations for Anorexia Nervosa
14.1.6Psychological Explanations: Family Systems Theory
14.1.7Psychological Explanations: Social Learning Theory
14.1.8Psychological Explanations: Cognitive Theory
14.1.9Biological Explanations for Obesity
14.1.10Biological Explanations: Studies
14.1.11Psychological Explanations for Obesity
14.1.12Psychological Explanations: Studies
14.1.13End of Topic Test - Eating Behaviour
15Option 2: Stress (A2 only)
15.1Stress (A2 only)
15.1.1Physiology of Stress
15.1.2Role of Stress in Illness
15.1.3Role of Stress in Illness: Studies
15.1.4Social Readjustment Rating Scales
15.1.5Hassles & Uplifts Scales
15.1.6Stress, Workload & Control
15.1.7Stress Level Studies
15.1.8End of Topic Test - Stress 1
15.1.9Physiological Measures of Stress
15.1.10Individual Differences
15.1.11Stress & Gender
15.1.12Drug Therapy & Biofeedback for Stress
15.1.13Stress Inoculation Therapy
15.1.14Social Support & Stress
15.1.15End of Topic Test - Stress 2
16Option 3: Aggression (A2 only)
16.1Aggression: Physiological (A2 only)
16.1.1Neural Mechanisms
16.1.2Serotonin
16.1.3Hormonal Mechanisms
16.1.4Genetic Factors
16.1.5Genetic Factors 2
16.1.6End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 1
16.1.7Ethological Explanation
16.1.8Innate Releasing Mechanisms & Fixed Action Pattern
16.1.9Evolutionary Explanations
16.1.10Buss et al (1992) - Sex Differences in Jealousy
16.1.11Evaluation of Evolutionary Explanations
16.1.12End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 2
16.2Aggression: Social Psychological (A2 only)
16.2.1Social Psychological Explanation
16.2.2Buss (1963) - Frustration/Aggression
16.2.3Social Psychological Explanation 2
16.2.4Social Learning Theory (SLT) 1
16.2.5Social Learning Theory (SLT) 2
16.2.6Limitations of Social Learning Theory (SLT)
16.2.7Deindividuation
16.2.8Deindividuation 2
16.2.9Deindividuation - Diener et al (1976)
16.2.10End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology
16.2.11Institutional Aggression: Prisons
16.2.12Evaluation of Dispositional & Situational
16.2.13Influence of Computer Games
16.2.14Influence of Television
16.2.15Evaluation of Studies on Media
16.2.16Desensitisation & Disinhibition
16.2.17Cognitive Priming
16.2.18End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology
17Option 3: Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
17.1Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
17.1.1Defining Crime
17.1.2Measuring Crime
17.1.3Offender Profiling
17.1.4Evaluation of Offender Profiling
17.1.5John Duffy Case Study
17.1.6Biological Explanations 1
17.1.7Biological Explanations 2
17.1.8Evaluation of the Biological Explanation
17.1.9Cognitive Explanations
17.1.10Moral Reasoning
17.1.11Psychodynamic Explanation 1
17.1.12Psychodynamic Explanation 2
17.1.13End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 1
17.1.14Differential Association Theory
17.1.15Custodial Sentencing
17.1.16Effects of Prison
17.1.17Evaluation of the Effects of Prison
17.1.18Recidivism
17.1.19Behavioural Treatments & Therapies
17.1.20Effectiveness of Behavioural Treatments
17.1.21Restorative Justice
17.1.22End of Topic Test - Forensic Psychology 2
18Option 3: Addiction (A2 only)
18.1Addiction (A2 only)
18.1.1Definition
18.1.2Brain Neurochemistry Explanation
18.1.3Learning Theory Explanation
18.1.4Evaluation of a Learning Theory Explanation
18.1.5Cognitive Bias
18.1.6Griffiths on Cognitive Bias
18.1.7Evaluation of Cognitive Theory (A2 only)
18.1.8End of Topic Test - Addiction 1
18.1.9Gambling Addiction & Learning Theory
18.1.10Social Influences on Addiction 1
18.1.11Social Influences on Addiction 2
18.1.12Personal Influences on Addiction
18.1.13Genetic Explanations of Addiction
18.1.14End of Topic Test - Addiction 2
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