Phobias, Depression & OCD

The DSM Classification of Phobias

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders is now in its fifth edition. It is like a medical dictionary; it lists symptoms for mental disorders to aid diagnosis. The ICD 10 (International Classification of Diseases) is similar, but there are differences.

DSM-5 categories of phobias

They are all categorised by excessive fear and anxiety, triggered by an object, place or situation.
The extent of the fear is out of proportion to any real danger presented by the phobic stimulus.
Phobias fall under the classification of ‘anxiety disorders’ – a group of mental disorders that share the primary symptom of extreme anxiety.
They are instances of irrational fears that produce a conscious avoidance of the feared object or situation.

Examples of phobias

Social Phobias
- Agoraphobia – fear of public places, being out of the house
Specific Phobias
- Arachnophobia – spiders
Claustrophobia – enclosed spaces
Acrophobia – heights.

Physical symptoms of phobias

Behavioural characteristics are categorised by avoidance behaviours.
- E.g. if you have a phobia of spiders, you will avoid it.
Sometimes, people freeze or faint. There will be physical symptoms; the fight or flight response.
- E.g. increased heart rate, perspiration etc. will be evident when confronted by the phobic object or situation or even the thought of it.

DSM diagnostic criteria for phobias

Unreasonable, excessive fear
Immediate anxiety response
Recognition that the fear is irrational or that it is not required
Avoidance or extreme distress
Lifestyle limiting
Six months duration
Not caused by another disorder

Depression

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a mood disorder that causes feelings of extreme sadness and low mood, and can reduce the sufferer's ability to function normally.

Depression symptoms

The defining symptoms of a major depressive disorder include “depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day”, feeling sad, empty or hopeless, and loss of interest in activities that previously brought joy.
Depression is considered episodic: its symptoms are typically present at their full magnitude for a period of time and then gradually reduce.

Depression risks

Around 50% of people who experience an episode will go on to have another in the future, and the more a person has, the likelihood of them having another episode increases.
Depression is also considered a risk factor for various other health conditions, including heart attacks, anxiety disorders, obesity, substance abuse, and more.

Behavioural characteristics of depression

Difficulty falling asleep or sleeping too much.
Psychomotor agitation (noticeably fidgety and jittery) or psychomotor retardation (talking and moving slowly).
Significant weight gain/loss or significant increase/decrease in appetite.
Fatigue or loss of energy.

Emotional characteristics of depression

Sustained and extreme sadness.
Feelings of worthlessness.
Experience of extreme guilt.

Cognitive characteristics of depression

Difficulty concentrating and indecisiveness.
Suicidal ideation: thoughts of death (not just fear of dying), thinking about or planning suicide, or making an actual suicide attempt.
Poor self-esteem.

DSM diagnosis

According to the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) of Mental Disorders, a person must show five or more of the symptoms just described for most days in a two week period or more to be diagnosed with depression.

Neurological and physiological evidence

Depression is linked to abnormal activity in several regions of the brain, including those important in assessing the emotional significance of stimuli and experiencing emotions (amygdala), and in regulating and controlling emotions (prefrontal cortex).
Researchers have also found that depressed individuals have abnormally high levels of the stress hormone cortisol. High levels of cortisol is a risk factor for future depression.
It is likely that high cortisol levels have a causal effect on depression.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a disorder that consists of obsessions and compulsions.

Illustrative background for OCD ?? "content

OCD

People with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) experience thoughts and urges that are intrusive and unwanted (obsessions) and/or the need to engage in repetitive behaviours or mental acts (compulsions).
Sufferers of OCD often have obsessions and compulsions that are linked.
- For example, a person with this disorder might have an extreme fear of catching an illness (obsession) and so spend hours each day washing their hands (compulsion).

Cognitive characteristics of OCD

Obsessions are the cognitive aspect of OCD.
Obsessions are more than just unwanted thoughts that jump into our head. They are characterised as persistent, unintentional, and unwanted thoughts and urges that are highly intrusive, unpleasant, and distressing.
Common obsessions include concerns about germs and contamination, doubts, order and symmetry, and urges.
Usually, the person knows that such thoughts and urges are irrational and tries to suppress or ignore them, but has an extremely difficult time doing so.

Behavioural characteristics of OCD

Compulsions are the behavioural aspect of OCD.
Compulsions are repetitive and ritualistic acts that are typically carried out to minimise the distress that obsessions trigger or to reduce the likelihood of a feared event.
Compulsions often include behaviours such as repeated and extensive hand washing, cleaning, checking, and ordering. They also include mental acts such as counting, praying, or reciting something.
Compulsions characteristic of OCD are not done out of pleasure. They are not connected in a realistic way to the source of the distress or feared event.

Emotional characteristics of OCD

OCD can cause sufferers to experience severe anxiety and distress related to the obsessions.
In addition, people may feel guilt after an episode of a particularly distressing obsession.

1Social Influence

1.1Social Influence

1.1.1Conformity

1.1.2Asch (1951)

1.1.3Sherif (1935)

1.1.4Conformity to Social Roles

1.1.5BBC Prison Study

1.1.6End of Topic Test - Conformity

1.1.7Obedience

1.1.8Analysing Milgram's Experiment

1.1.9Agentic State & Legitimate Authority

1.1.10Variables of Obedience

1.1.11Resistance to Social Influence

1.1.12Minority Influence & Social Change

1.1.13Minority Influence & Social Impact Theory

1.1.14End of Topic Test - Social Influences

1.1.15Exam-Style Question - Conformity

1.1.16Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Social Influence

2Memory

3Attachment

3.1Attachment

3.1.1Caregiver-Infant Interaction

3.1.2Condon & Sander (1974)

3.1.3Schaffer & Emerson (1964)

3.1.4Multiple Attachments

3.1.5Studies on the Role of the Father

3.1.6Animal Studies of Attachment

3.1.7Explanations of Attachment

3.1.8Attachment Types - Strange Situation

3.1.9Cultural Differences in Attachment

3.1.10Disruption of Attachment

3.1.11Disruption of Attachment - Privation

3.1.12Overcoming the Effects of Disruption

3.1.13The Effects of Institutionalisation

3.1.14Early Attachment

3.1.15Critical Period of Attachment

3.1.16End of Topic Test - Attachment

3.1.17Exam-Style Question - Attachment

3.1.18Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Attachment

4(2026 Exams) Psychopathology

4.1Psychopathology

4.1.1Abnormality

4.1.2Abnormality 2

4.1.3Phobias, Depression & OCD

4.1.4Phobias: Behavioural Approach

4.1.5Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias

4.1.6Depression: Cognitive Approach

4.1.7OCD: Biological Approach

4.1.8Evidence for the Biological Approach

4.1.9End of Topic Test - Psychopathy

4.1.10Exam-Style Question - Phobias

4.1.11Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology

4.1.12Diagnostic Misconceptions - Phobia vs Fear

4.1.13Diagnostic Misconceptions - Depression & Self-Harm

4.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Desensitisation

5Approaches in Psychology

5.1Approaches in Psychology

5.2Comparison of Approaches (A2 only)

5.2.1Psychodynamic Approach

5.2.2Cognitive Approach

5.2.3Biological Approach

5.2.4Behavioural Approach

5.2.5End of Topic Test - Comparison of Approaches

6Biopsychology

6.1Biopsychology

6.1.1Nervous System Divisions

6.1.2Neuron Structure & Function

6.1.3Neurotransmitters

6.1.4Endocrine System Function

6.1.5Fight or Flight Response

6.1.6The Brain (A2 only)

6.1.7Localisation of Brain Function (A2 only)

6.1.8Studying the Brain (A2 only)

6.1.9CIMT (A2 Only) & Postmortem Examinations

6.1.10Biological Rhythms (A2 only)

6.1.11Studies on Biological Rhythms (A2 Only)

6.1.12End of Topic Test - Biopsychology

6.1.13Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Biopsychology

6.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Plasticity & Recovery

6.1.15Diagnostic Misconceptions - Endogenous Pacemakers

7(2027 Exams) Clinical Psychology & Mental Health

7.1Clinical Psychology & Mental Health

7.1.1Deviation from Social Norms

7.1.2Deviation from Social Norms 2

7.1.3Phobias, Depression & OCD

7.1.4Phobias: Behavioural Approach

7.1.5Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias

7.1.6Depression: Cognitive Approach

7.1.7OCD: Biological Approach

7.1.8Evidence for the Biological Approach

7.1.9End of Topic Test - Psychopathy

7.1.10Exam-Style Question - Phobias

7.1.11Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology

7.1.12Diagnostic Misconceptions - Phobia vs Fear

7.1.13Diagnostic Misconceptions - Depression & Self-Harm

7.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Desensitisation

8Research Methods

8.1Research Methods

8.1.1Experimental Method

8.1.2Observational Techniques

8.1.3Covert, Overt & Controlled Observation

8.1.4Self-Report Techniques

8.1.5Correlations

8.1.6Exam-Style Question - Research Methods

8.1.7End of Topic Test - Research Methods

8.1.8Diagnostic Misconceptions - Sign Test

8.1.9Diagnostic Misconceptions - Content & Thematic

8.1.10Diagnostic Misconceptions - Valid vs Reliable

8.1.11Diagnostic Misconceptions - Confounding Variable

8.2Scientific Processes

8.2.1Aims, Hypotheses & Sampling

8.2.2Pilot Studies & Design

8.2.3Questionnaires

8.2.4Variables & Control

8.2.5Demand Characteristics & Investigator Effects

8.2.6Ethics

8.2.7Limitations of Ethical Guidelines

8.2.8Consent & Protection from Harm Studies

8.2.9Peer Review & The Economy

8.2.10Validity (A2 only)

8.2.11Reliability (A2 only)

8.2.12Features of Science (A2 only)

8.2.13Paradigms & Falsifiability (A2 only)

8.2.14Scientific Report (A2 only)

8.2.15Scientific Report 2 (A2 only)

8.2.16End of Topic Test - Scientific Processes

8.3Data Handling & Analysis

8.3.1Types of Data

8.3.2Descriptive Statistics

8.3.3Correlation

8.3.4Evaluation of Descriptive Statistics

8.3.5Presentation & Display of Data

8.3.6Levels of Measurement (A2 only)

8.3.7Content Analysis (A2 only)

8.3.8Case Studies (A2 only)

8.3.9Thematic Analysis (A2 only)

8.3.10End of Topic Test - Data Handling & Analysis

8.4Inferential Testing

8.4.1Introduction to Inferential Testing

8.4.2Sign Test

8.4.3Piaget Conservation Experiment

8.4.4Non-Parametric Tests

9Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)

9.1Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)

9.1.1Culture Bias

9.1.2Sub-Culture Bias

9.1.3Gender Bias

9.1.4Ethnocentrism

9.1.5Cross Cultural Research

9.1.6Free Will & Determinism

9.1.7Comparison of Free Will & Determinism

9.1.8Reductionism & Holism

9.1.9Reductionist & Holistic Approaches

9.1.10Nature-Nurture Debate

9.1.11Interactionist Approach

9.1.12Nature-Nurture Methods

9.1.13Nature-Nurture Approaches

9.1.14Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches

9.1.15Socially Sensitive Research

9.1.16End of Topic Test - Issues and Debates

10Option 1: Relationships (A2 only)

10.1Relationships: Sexual Relationships (A2 only)

10.1.1Sexual Selection & Human Reproductive Behaviour

10.1.2Intersexual & Intrasexual Selection

10.1.3Evaluation of Sexual Selection Behaviour

10.1.4Factors Affecting Attraction: Self-Disclosure

10.1.5Evaluation of Self-Disclosure Theory

10.1.6Self Disclosure in Computer Communication

10.1.7Factors Affecting Attraction: Physical Attributes

10.1.8Matching Hypothesis Studies

10.1.9Factors Affecting Physical Attraction

10.1.10Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 1

10.1.11Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 2

10.1.12Evaluation of Filter Theory

10.1.13End of Topic Test - Sexual Relationships

10.2Relationships: Romantic Relationships (A2 only)

10.2.1Social Exchange Theory

10.2.2Evaluation of Social Exchange Theory

10.2.3Equity Theory

10.2.4Evaluation of Equity Theory

10.2.5Rusbult’s Investment Model

10.2.6Evaluation of Rusbult's Investment Model

10.2.7Relationship Breakdown

10.2.8Studies on Relationship Breakdown

10.2.9Evaluation of Relationship Breakdown

10.2.10End of Topic Test - Romantic relationships

10.3Relationships: Virtual & Parasocial (A2 only)

10.3.1Virtual Relationships in Social Media

10.3.2Evaluation of Reduced Cues & Hyperpersonal

10.3.3Parasocial Relationships

10.3.4Attachment Theory & Parasocial Relationships

10.3.5Evaluation of Parasocial Relationship Theories

10.3.6End of Topic Test - Virtual & Parasocial Realtions

11Option 1: Gender (A2 only)

11.1Gender (A2 only)

11.1.1Sex, Gender & Androgyny

11.1.2Gender Identity Disorder

11.1.3Biological & Social Explanations of GID

11.1.4Biological Influences on Gender

11.1.5Effects of Hormones on Gender

11.1.6End of Topic Test - Gender 1

11.1.7Kohlberg’s Theory of Gender Constancy

11.1.8Evaluation of Kohlberg's Theory

11.1.9Gender Schema Theory

11.1.10Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 1

11.1.11Psychodynamic Approach to Gender Development 2

11.1.12Social Approach to Gender Development

11.1.13Criticisms of Social Theory

11.1.14End of Topic Test - Gender 2

11.1.15Media Influence on Gender Development

11.1.16Cross Cultural Research

11.1.17Childcare & Gender Roles

11.1.18End of Topic Test - Gender 3

12Option 1: Cognition & Development (A2 only)

12.1Cognition & Development (A2 only)

12.1.1Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 1

12.1.2Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 2

12.1.3Schema Accommodation Assimilation & Equilibration

12.1.4Piaget & Inhelder’s Three Mountains Task (1956)

12.1.5Conservation & Class Inclusion

12.1.6Evaluation of Piaget

12.1.7End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 1

12.1.8Vygotsky

12.1.9Evaluation of Vygotsky

12.1.10Baillargeon

12.1.11Baillargeon's studies

12.1.12Evaluation of Baillargeon

12.1.13End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 2

12.1.14Sense of Self & Theory of Mind

12.1.15Baron-Cohen Studies

12.1.16Selman’s Five Levels of Perspective Taking

12.1.17Biological Basis of Social Cognition

12.1.18Evaluation of Biological Basis of Social Cognition

12.1.19Important Issues in Social Neuroscience

12.1.20End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 3

12.1.21Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Cognition & Development

13Option 2: Schizophrenia (A2 only)

13.1Schizophrenia: Diagnosis (A2 only)

13.1.1Classification & Diagnosis

13.1.2Reliability & Validity of Diagnosis

13.1.3Gender & Cultural Bias

13.1.4Pinto (2017) & Copeland (1971)

13.1.5End of Topic Test - Scizophrenia Diagnosis

13.2Schizophrenia: Treatment (A2 only)

13.2.1Family-Based Psychological Explanations

13.2.2Evaluation of Family-Based Explanations

13.2.3Cognitive Explanations

13.2.4Drug Therapies

13.2.5Evaluation of Drug Therapies

13.2.6Biological Explanations for Schizophrenia

13.2.7Dopamine Hypothesis

13.2.8End of Topic Test - Schizoprenia Treatment 1

13.2.9Psychological Therapies 1

13.2.10Psychological Therapies 2

13.2.11Evaluation of Psychological Therapies

13.2.12Interactionist Approach - Diathesis-Stress Model

13.2.13Interactionist Approach - Triggers & Treatment

13.2.14Evaluation of the Interactionist Approach

13.2.15End of Topic Test - Scizophrenia Treatments 2

13.2.16Diagnostic Misconceptions - CBT & CBTp

14Option 2: Eating Behaviour (A2 only)

14.1Eating Behaviour (A2 only)

14.1.1Explanations for Food Preferences

14.1.2Birch et al (1987) & Lowe et al (2004)

14.1.3Control of Eating Behaviours

14.1.4Control of Eating Behaviour: Leptin

14.1.5Biological Explanations for Anorexia Nervosa

14.1.6Psychological Explanations: Family Systems Theory

14.1.7Psychological Explanations: Social Learning Theory

14.1.8Psychological Explanations: Cognitive Theory

14.1.9Biological Explanations for Obesity

14.1.10Biological Explanations: Studies

14.1.11Psychological Explanations for Obesity

14.1.12Psychological Explanations: Studies

14.1.13End of Topic Test - Eating Behaviour

15Option 2: Stress (A2 only)

15.1Stress (A2 only)

15.1.1Physiology of Stress

15.1.2Role of Stress in Illness

15.1.3Role of Stress in Illness: Studies

15.1.4Social Readjustment Rating Scales

15.1.5Hassles & Uplifts Scales

15.1.6Stress, Workload & Control

15.1.7Stress Level Studies

15.1.8End of Topic Test - Stress 1

15.1.9Physiological Measures of Stress

15.1.10Individual Differences

15.1.11Stress & Gender

15.1.12Drug Therapy & Biofeedback for Stress

15.1.13Stress Inoculation Therapy

15.1.14Social Support & Stress

15.1.15End of Topic Test - Stress 2

16Option 3: Aggression (A2 only)

16.1Aggression: Physiological (A2 only)

16.1.1Neural Mechanisms

16.1.2Serotonin

16.1.3Hormonal Mechanisms

16.1.4Genetic Factors

16.1.5Genetic Factors 2

16.1.6End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 1

16.1.7Ethological Explanation

16.1.8Innate Releasing Mechanisms & Fixed Action Pattern

16.1.9Evolutionary Explanations

16.1.10Buss et al (1992) - Sex Differences in Jealousy

16.1.11Evaluation of Evolutionary Explanations

16.1.12End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 2

16.2Aggression: Social Psychological (A2 only)

16.2.1Social Psychological Explanation

16.2.2Buss (1963) - Frustration/Aggression

16.2.3Social Psychological Explanation 2

16.2.4Social Learning Theory (SLT) 1

16.2.5Social Learning Theory (SLT) 2

16.2.6Limitations of Social Learning Theory (SLT)

16.2.7Deindividuation

16.2.8Deindividuation 2

16.2.9Deindividuation - Diener et al (1976)

16.2.10End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology

16.2.11Institutional Aggression: Prisons

16.2.12Evaluation of Dispositional & Situational

16.2.13Influence of Computer Games

16.2.14Influence of Television

16.2.15Evaluation of Studies on Media

16.2.16Desensitisation & Disinhibition

16.2.17Cognitive Priming

16.2.18End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology

17Option 3: Forensic Psychology (A2 only)

18Option 3: Addiction (A2 only)

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