3.9.1

Production of Alcohols

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Types of Alcohols

Alcohols can be either primary, secondary, or tertiary.

Primary alcohols

Primary alcohols

  • A primary alcohol is one which has one carbon bonded to the carbon bonded to the functional group.
    • E.g. ethanol.
Secondary alcohols

Secondary alcohols

  • A secondary alcohol is one which has two carbons bonded to the carbon bonded to the functional group.
    • E.g. propan-2-ol.
Tertiary alcohols

Tertiary alcohols

  • A tertiary alcohol is one which has three carbons bonded to the carbon bonded to the functional group.
    • E.g. 2-methyl-propan-2-ol.

Alcohol Production

There are a variety of methods for synthesising alcohols. Different methods are used for industrial purposes and for drinking purposes.

Industrial alcohol production

Industrial alcohol production

  • Alcohols are produced industrially by hydration (adding water) of alkenes in the presence of an acid catalyst.
  • The most common catalyst is phosphoric (V) acid. It’s done at 300oC and 60 atm pressure.
  • The mechanism is via an electrophilic addition.
Hydration of ethene

Hydration of ethene

  • The mechanism above shows how:
    • The acid catalyst acts first to add to the alkene.
    • The lone pair on the oxygen then attacks the carbocation intermediate.
    • Finally, a proton is lost to give an alcohol and to reform the acid catalyst.
Diagram
Fermentation

Fermentation

  • For some purposes, ethanol is produced by fermentation. This makes alcohol that is drinkable, but it can also be used for making biofuels.
  • Fermentation uses yeast to turn glucose into ethanol.
  • The reaction for it is:
    • C6H12O6→40oCYeast2C2H6O+2CO2C_6H_{12}O_6 \xrightarrow[{40^oC}]{\text{Yeast}}2C_2H_6O + 2CO_2
  • Ethanol is separated by distillation.
  • The process is cheap, but distillation adds extra cost.

Biofuels

Biofuels are fuels composed of grown organic matter.

Biofuel

Biofuel

  • Ethanol is produced by fermentation and then separated by fractional distillation.
    • This can then be used as a biofuel.
  • Biofuels are greener than petrol.
    • This is because they are renewable - we can grow more plants so they won't run out.
      • They are more sustainable.
    • They are carbon neutral (kind of). They release CO2 when they burn, but they absorb it when they grow.
      • These cancel each other out.
Problems

Problems

  • Switching to biofuels is problematic:
    • Car engines aren’t built to run on ethanol.
    • Land that's growing biofuel isn't producing food.
      • This could lead to food shortages.
Carbon neutrality

Carbon neutrality

  • Earlier, we said that biofuels are kind of carbon neutral.
    • It’s true that what they release in CO2, they absorb when they grow.
  • But this is not the full story:
    • You need fossil fuels to make crop fertilisers, to harvest crops, and to transport the biofuel.
    • All these processes make CO2, so it's not completely carbon neutral.
Jump to other topics
1

Structure - Models of the Particulate of Matter

1.1

Introduction to the Particulate Model of Matter

1.1.1States of Matter1.1.2Kinetic Molecular Theory1.1.3Simple Sphere1.1.4Changing State1.1.5Forces Between Particles1.1.6Changes of State1.1.7Predicting States1.1.8Changing State HyperLearning1.1.9Ionization Energy
1.2

The Nuclear Atom

1.2.1Fundamental Particles1.2.2Isotopes & Mass Number1.2.3Mass Spectrometry1.2.4Mass Spectrometry1.2.5Mass Spectroscopy - Analysis1.2.6Extended Response - Mass Spectrometry1.2.7Radioactivity
1.3

Electron Configuration

1.3.1Electron Shells, Sub-Shells & Orbitals1.3.2Electron Configuration1.3.3Absorption & Emission Spectra1.3.4IB Multiple Choice - Atomic Structure1.3.5Extended Response - The Atom & Electrons
1.4

Counting Particles by Mass: The Mole

1.4.1Relative Masses1.4.2The Mole1.4.3IB Multiple Choice - Moles
1.5

Ideal Gases

1.5.1Ideal Gas Equation1.5.2Gas Laws1.5.3IB Multiple Choice - Gases & Kinetics
1.6

Elements, Compounds & Mixtures

1.6.1Fundamental Particles1.6.2Pure Substances1.6.3Purity & The Law of Definite Proportion1.6.4Mixtures1.6.5Separating Mixtures1.6.6IB Multiple Choice - Pure Substances1.6.7Extended Response - Moles & Pure Substances
1.7

States of Matter & Changes of State

1.7.1States of Matter1.7.2Particle Diagrams1.7.3IB Multiple Choice - Solids, Liquids, & Gases1.7.4Balancing Equations & Ionic Equations1.7.5Empirical & Molecular Formulas
1.8

Reacting Masses &. Volumes

1.8.1Balancing Equations & Ionic Equations1.8.2Percentage Yield
1.9

Solutions

1.9.1Molarity1.9.2Particulate Model of Solutions
2

Structure - Models of Bonding & Structure

2.1

The Ionic Model

2.1.1Ionic Bonding
2.2

The Covalent Model

2.2.1Covalent Bonds2.2.2Complex Ions2.2.3Factors Affecting Covalent Bond Strength2.2.4Polarity
2.3

Covalent Structures

2.3.1Ionic Lewis Structures2.3.2Covalent Lewis Structures2.3.3VSEPR Theory2.3.4Resonance Structures2.3.5Allotropes of Carbon2.3.6Formal Charge2.3.7End of Topic Quiz - Bonding2.3.8IB Multiple Choice - Bonding & Lewis Structures2.3.9IB Multiple Choice - Resonance & Formal Charge
2.4

The Metallic Model

2.4.1Metallic Bonding
2.5

From Models to Materials

2.5.1Alloys2.5.2Properties of Polymers2.5.3Polymerisation Reactions2.5.4Introduction to Alkenes2.5.5Reactions of Alkenes2.5.6End of Topic Quiz - Alkenes
2.6

Valence Electrons & Ionic Compounds

2.6.1Valence Electrons & Forming Ions2.6.2Ionic Compounds2.6.3End of Topic Quiz - Atoms & Ions2.6.4IB Multiple Choice - Valence & Ions
2.7

Molecular Shape

2.7.1VSEPR2.7.2Molecular Shapes2.7.3Bond Hybridization2.7.4IB Multiple Choice - VSEPR & Bond Hybridization2.7.5Extended Response - Bonding & Molecular Shape
2.8

Intermolecular Forces

2.8.1Introduction to Intermolecular Forces2.8.2London Dispersion Forces2.8.3Dipole-Dipole Interactions2.8.4Ion-Dipole Interactions2.8.5Hydrogen Bonding2.8.6Large Biomolecules2.8.7IB Multiple Choice - Intermolecular Forces2.8.8Extended Response - Hydrogen Bonding
3

Structure - Classification of Matter

3.1

The Periodic Table: Classification of Elements

3.1.1The Periodic Table3.1.2Trends in the Periodic Table3.1.3End of Topic Quiz - Periodicity & Trends3.1.4Periodic Trends - Electronegativity & Affinity3.1.5End of Topic Quiz - Periodic Trends3.1.6IB Multiple Choice - Periodic Trends3.1.7Extended Response - Periodic Table
3.2

Periodic Trends

3.2.1Atomic & Ionic Radii3.2.2Ionisation & Electronegativity3.2.3Metallic Behaviour & Oxides3.2.4Period 3 Elements & Oxides3.2.5Period 3 Oxides3.2.6End of Topic Quiz - Period 33.2.7Periodic Trends: Blocks3.2.8Redox Chemistry
3.3

Group 1 Alkali Metals

3.3.1Alkali Metals
3.4

Halogens

3.4.1Introduction to Halogens3.4.2Reactions of Halogens3.4.3Chlorine & Chlorate(I)3.4.4End of Topic Quiz - Group 73.4.5Exam-Style Question - Group 73.4.6End of Topic Quiz - Periodicity, Group 2 & 7
3.5

Noble gases, group 18

3.5.1Noble Gases
3.6

Functional Groups: Classification of Organic

3.6.1Nomenclature3.6.2Trends in Physical Properties3.6.3Saturated & Unsaturated Hydrocarbons3.6.4Nomenclature contd.3.6.5Types of Formulas3.6.6Isomerism3.6.7Formulae3.6.8Homologous Series3.6.9Structural Isomers
3.7

Functional Group Chemistry

3.7.1Degrees of Substitution3.7.2Arenes
3.8

Alkanes

3.8.1Alkanes3.8.2Fractional Distillation3.8.3Cracking3.8.4Combustion3.8.5Chlorination3.8.6End of Topic Quiz - Alkanes
3.9

Alcohols

3.9.1Production of Alcohols3.9.2Oxidation of Alcohols3.9.3Oxidation of Alcohols - 23.9.4Elimination Reactions3.9.5End of Topic Quiz - Alcohols3.9.6Exam-Style Question - Alcohols
3.10

Halogenoalkanes

3.10.1Substitution Reactions3.10.2Elimination Reactions3.10.3Ozone Depletion3.10.4End of Topic Quiz - Halogenoalkanes
4

Reactivity - What Drives Chemical Reaction?

4.1

Endothermic & Exothermic Reactions

4.1.1Endothermic & Exothermic Reactions4.1.2Energy Diagrams4.1.3Heat Transfer & Thermal Equilibrium4.1.4IB Multiple Choice - Enthalpy & Energy
4.2

Enthalpy of Reaction, Formation, & Hess' Law

4.2.1Enthalpy of Reaction4.2.2Bond Enthalpies4.2.3Enthalpy of Formation4.2.4Hess’ Law4.2.5Thermodynamics & Kinetic Control4.2.6End of Topic Quiz - Thermodynamics4.2.7IB Multiple Choice - Enthalpy4.2.8Extended Response - Enthalpy Change
4.3

Entropy

4.3.1Introduction to Entropy4.3.2Absolute Entropy & Entropy Change4.3.3Free Energy4.3.4Thermodynamically Favorable Reactions4.3.5IB Multiple Choice - Entropy & Free Energy4.3.6Extended Response - Free Energy
5

Reactivity - How Much, How Fast & How Far?

5.1

Kinetics

5.1.1Collision Theory & Rates of Reaction5.1.2Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution5.1.3Increasing Rates5.1.4End of Topic Quiz - Kinetics
5.2

Rates of Reaction

5.2.1Rate Equations5.2.2Rate Equations 25.2.3The Effect of a Catalyst
5.3

Stoichometry

5.3.1Stoichiometry
5.4

Le Châtelier’s Principle

5.4.1Introduction to Le Châtelier’s Principle5.4.2Reaction Quotient & Le Châtelier’s Principle5.4.3Temperature & Le Châtelier’s Principle5.4.4IB Multiple Choice -Le Châtelier’s Principle5.4.5Extended Response - Le Châtelier
5.5

Introduction to Equilibrium

5.5.1Equilibrium & Equilibrium Graphs5.5.2Dynamic Equilibria5.5.3Reversible Reactions & Directions
5.6

Equilibrium Constant

5.6.1Calculating the Equilibrium Constant5.6.2Magnitude of the Equilibrium Constant5.6.3Properties of the Equilibrium Constant5.6.4Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations5.6.5Representations of Equilibrium5.6.6IB Multiple Choice - Equilibrium Constants5.6.7Extended Response - Calculating Kc
5.7

Reaction Quotient & Equilibrium Constant

5.7.1Reaction Quotient5.7.2Equilibrium Constants5.7.3Partial Pressures5.7.4Kp5.7.5IB Multiple Choice - Reaction Quotient & Kp5.7.6Extended Response - Kp & Bond Enthalpy
6

Reactivity - The Mechanisms of Chemical Change

6.1

Proton Transfer Reactions

6.1.1Brønsted-Lowry Theory
6.2

The pH Scale

6.2.1pH & pOH6.2.2Ionic Product of Water6.2.3Using Kw6.2.4IB Multiple Choice - pH & Kw6.2.5Extended Response - Kw
6.3

Strong & Weak Acids and Bases

6.3.1Strong Acids & Bases6.3.2Weak Acids & Ka6.3.3Weak Bases & Kb6.3.4Weak Acids & Bases Calculation Walkthrough
6.4

Acid Deposition

6.4.1Acid Deposition
6.5

Types of Organic Reactions

6.5.1Electrophilic Substitution
6.6

Oxidation & Reduction

6.6.1Oxidation Number Method6.6.2Winkler Method6.6.3Redox Reactions6.6.4Oxidation States & Equations6.6.5End of Topic Quiz - Redox6.6.6Extended Response - Redox Reactions
6.7

Electrochemical Cells

6.7.1Introduction to Electrochemical Cells6.7.2Galvanic Cells6.7.3Cell Notation6.7.4Electrolytic Cells6.7.5Extended Response - Voltaic Cells & Redox
6.8

Titration

6.8.1Redox Titrations6.8.2Titration Calculations6.8.3Atom Economy
6.9

Acid-Base Titrations

6.9.1Titration Calculation Weak Acid & Strong Base6.9.2Titration Experimental Detail6.9.3Extended Response - Titration6.9.4Titration Calculations6.9.5Titration Curves6.9.6Titration Calculation Strong Acid & Weak Base6.9.7IB Multiple Choice - Titrations6.9.8Polyprotic Acids6.9.9Titration Calculations Strong Acid & Strong Base6.9.10Titrations Curves 2
7

Measurement, Data Processing & Analysis

7.1

Uncertainties & Errors in Measurements & Results

7.1.1Qualitative & Quantitative data
7.2

Graphical Techniques

7.2.1Drawing & Interpreting Graphs7.2.2Linear Interpolation
7.3

Spectroscopic Identification of Organic Compounds

7.3.1Understanding NMR7.3.2Carbon-13 NMR7.3.3Hydrogen-1 NMR7.3.4Hydrogen-1 NMR 27.3.5End of Topic Quiz - NMR
7.4

Infrared Spectroscpy

7.4.1Infrared Spectroscopy

Practice questions on Production of Alcohols

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  1. 1
    Which of the following is a tertiary alcohol?Multiple choice
  2. 2
    Which of the following are secondary alcohols?True / false
  3. 3
    Industrial alcohol production is carried out at:Fill in the list
  4. 4
    The acid catalyst acts in what step of the electrophilic addition mechanism?Multiple choice
  5. 5
    What is the catalyst used in the hydration of an alkene to give an alcohol?Multiple choice
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End of Topic Quiz - Alkanes

Oxidation of Alcohols