Internal Processes

Educational achievement (how pupils do in school) can be affected by internal and external factors. Internal factors are things found within the school environment that might affect pupils’ attainment.

School ethos

This refers to the atmosphere of the school.
A school might focus on academic attainment, morals and policies dealing with bullying or racism, or any other type of discrimination.

Hidden curriculum

This refers to the norms and values that teachers teach the pupils.
For example, respecting each other, being polite, queuing, having correct uniform standards.
It teaches pupils the importance of competition which is a trait necessary for their adult life.

Setting

Setting is putting pupils into groups based on their ability in particular subjects.
This is seen as positive as it challenges the most able and lets the least able to work at their own pace
However, this method can lead to labelling.

Streaming

Streaming is putting pupils into groups based on their ability on general assessments.
It’s easier to have pupils divided based on their performance, but it can lead to low self-esteem.

Mixed ability

Mixed ability is when pupils are put into groups invariably of their achievement.
This can push some pupils to try harder but at the same time can drag brighter pupils down as the teacher might adapt their lesson according to the least academically capable.

Internal Processes

Labelling and self-fulfilling prophecy

Pupils tend to be labelled based on their academic abilities.
For example, once a student is labelled as ‘not very bright’ everyone responds to this label and perceives them as ‘not very bright’.
The labelled pupil then starts to live up to this label and behaves in this way. This is called the self-fulfilling prophecy.

Becker (unconscious labelling)

According to Becker, labelling takes place into schools.
In other words, teachers tend to make judgements based on pupils' appearance and behaviour.
Usually, middle-class pupils tend to be perceived as successful and this is why they are put in the higher streams and sets.

Pupil subcultures

These are groups of pupils who share the same norms and values.
They tend to have the support of their peers and that gives them a sense of fulfilment.
They can be separated into pro- and anti-school subcultures depending on whether they agree or disagree with the dominant norms and values.

Working-class subculture

The working-class parents that don’t value education tend to pass on their children the same mentality.
So when the latter go to school they form anti-school subcultures, i.e. groups who go against the norms and values of the school as Willis suggested in his study ‘Learning to Labour’.

Ball (1981)

A key study is by Ball (1981) who conducted a case study of secondary schooling at Beachside Comprehensive.

Ball

Ball researched schooling in a south coast comprehensive school.
It was based on three years' fieldwork as a participant observer.
This is a participant observation study in the tradition of Colin Lacey’s Hightown Grammar and David Hargreaves Social Relations in a Secondary School.

Investigation

Ball tried to evaluate the difference between pupils who were put into streams and sets and those who were taught in mixed ability classes.

Findings

Ball concluded that pupils were conformists; they lived up to the expectations that the pupils/school had set for them.
Even though in their first days they were doing quite well, as time passed by their behaviour gradually changed.

1The Sociological Approach

1.1Introduction to Sociology

1.1.1What is Sociology?

1.1.2Culture & Socialisation

1.2Sociological Approaches

1.2.1Marxism

1.2.2Marxism 2

1.2.3Functionalism

1.2.4Feminism

1.3The Consensus vs. Conflict Debate

1.3.1The Consensus vs. Conflict Debate

1.3.2End of Topic Test - The Sociological Approach

2Families

2.1Functions of Families

2.1.1Functionalist Views on Family

2.1.2Marxist Views on Family

2.1.3Feminist Views on Family

2.2Family Forms

2.2.1What is a Family?

2.2.2Nuclear Family

2.2.3Families in a Global Context

2.2.4The Rapoports & Family Diversity

2.2.5Causes of Family Diversity

2.2.6End of Topic Test - Family Forms

2.3Conjugal Role Relationships

2.3.1Conjugal Roles

2.4Changing Relationships Within Families

2.4.1Timeline

2.4.2Domestic Abuse

2.4.3Symmetrical Family

2.5Criticisms of Families

2.5.1Functionalist Views of Families

2.5.2Marxist Views of Families

2.5.3Feminist Views of Families

2.5.4Declining Marriage Rate

2.5.5End of Topic Test - Criticisms of Families

2.6Divorce

2.6.1Reasons For Rise in Divorce Rate

2.6.2Consequences of Divorce

2.6.3Functionalist Views

2.6.4Marxist Views

2.6.5Feminist Views

2.6.6End of Topic Test - Divorce

3Education

3.1Roles & Functions of Education

3.1.1The Functionalist Approach

3.1.2Evaluating Different Perspectives

3.1.3Types of School

3.1.4Alternative Education

3.1.5State & Private Schools

3.2Processes Within Schools

3.2.1Internal Processes

3.2.2External Processes

3.3Educational Achievement

3.3.1Measuring Educational Success

3.3.2Social Class & Education

3.3.3Social Class & External Factors

3.3.4Gender & Education

3.3.5Ethnicity & Education

3.3.6Parental Choice

3.3.7History of UK Education Policy

3.3.8Recent UK Education Policy

3.3.9End of Topic Test - Education

4Crime & Deviance

4.1The Social Construction of Crime

4.1.1Defining Crime & Deviance

4.1.2Sociological Explanations of Crime

4.1.3Interactionist Explanations of Crime

4.1.4Alternative Explanations of Crime

4.2Social Control

4.2.1Informal Social Control

4.2.2Formal Social Control

4.2.3End of Topic Test - Social Construction of Crime

4.3Criminal & Deviant Behaviour

4.3.1Explanations of Crime

4.3.2Social Class & Crime

4.3.3Gender & Crime

4.3.4Ethnicity & Crime

4.3.5Age & Crime

4.3.6Criminal Responsibility

4.3.7The Prison System

4.3.8Media Reporting of Crime

4.3.9Functionalist Explanations of Crime

4.4Data on Crime

4.4.1Measuring Crime

4.4.2End of Topic Test - Criminal & Deviant Behaviour

5Social Stratification

5.1Social Stratification

5.1.1What is Social Stratification?

5.1.2Functionalism

5.1.3Socio-Economic Class

5.1.4Socio-Economic Class 2

5.1.5Life Chances

5.1.6The Affluent Worker

5.1.7End of Topic Test - Social Stratifictaion

5.2Poverty as a Social Issue

5.2.1Defining Poverty

5.2.2Factors Affecting Poverty

5.2.3Explanations of Poverty

5.2.4Impact of Globalisation

5.2.5End of Topic Test - Poverty as a Social Issue

5.3Power & Authority

5.3.1Weber

5.3.2Sociological Perspectives

5.3.3Power Relationships

5.3.4End of Topic Test - Power & Authority

6Sociological Research Methods

6.1Research Methods

6.1.1Research Design

6.1.2The Scientific Method

6.1.3Other Considerations

6.1.4Primary Sources

6.1.5Secondary Sources

6.1.6Surveys

6.1.7Sampling

6.1.8Questionnaires

6.1.9Interviews

6.1.10Observation

6.1.11Statistics

6.1.12Case Studies

6.1.13Longitudinal Studies

6.1.14Ethnography

6.1.15Experiments

6.1.16Small Scale Research

6.1.17End of Topic Test - Research Methods

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