The Middle East and Africa

Britain and its African & Middle Eastern Colonies, 1914-1947

International relations in the Middle East were strained. By 1947, issues had not been resolved. In the African colonies, nationalism was gaining momentum.

Britain in Egypt after WW1

After World War One, Egypt expected to be granted sovereign status as a country.
On the 8th of March 1919, amid protests demanding Egyptian and Sudanese independence, the British exiled the main Egyptian Nationalist leader, Saad Zaghlul.
There were weeks of strikes, demonstrations, and attacks on British facilities in Egypt and Sudan.
As a result, in 1922, Britain was forced to give Egypt its independence, as long as 'foreign' (probably read British) interests were protected in Egypt.
In 1924, Zaghlul became Egypt's first Prime Minister.
As part of the agreement, Britain retained troops by the Suez Canal, protecting their shipping route to India.

Palestine after WW1

Arab-Jewish tensions rose over Palestine in the 1930s as Hitler persecuted more Jews in Europe.
The Jewish population of Palestine rose from 150,000 in 1926 to 400,000 in 1936. The total population of Palestine was 1.2 million.
In 1937, the Peel Report recommended a partition as a solution to disorder in the region. However, Palestine's mandate status and resistance from the Arab population of Palestine made this impossible.
Jews formed Haganah (a paramilitary group) to protect themselves.
In 1947, the British handed Palestine over to the UN, hoping they could resolve the issues in the country.

West Africa

In 1914, Southern Nigeria and Northern Nigeria were united. This was mainly done for economic reasons - the north was spending too much money & couldn't raise taxes, whilst the south had a budget surplus.
In 1919, the National Congress of West Africa was created by the black elite in the Gold Coast. It had branches in the Gambia, Nigeria, and Sierra Leone.
In 1925, the West African Students’ Union was founded. This organisation united London-based West Africans and worked towards independence.

East Africa

Kenya was made a formal colony in 1920.
In 1920, Harry Thuku's 'Young Kikuyu' group began to campaign against British rule in Kenya.
In 1922, Thuku led protests against identity cards for African males and tax increases. Thuku was arrested, unlike the Nandi leader, Samoei, who was killed for his resistance in Uganda.
In 1921, the East African Association was created by Thuku and later joined by Jomo Kenyatta. The East African Association also tried to recover Kikuyu lands.

Nationalist Movements - Stern Gang

Stern Gang is actually a pejorative (negative) name (derived from the name of one of the leaders, Avraham Stern) for the Lehi, who were Fighters for the Freedom of Israel.

Israel Freedom Fighters

The Lehi was founded in 1940 as a Zionist (pro-Jewish state) paramilitary organisation, aiming to remove British authorities in Palestine using violence.
Historian S. Soffer (2007) says that during the Second World War, the Lehi sought an alliance with Nazi Germany, offering to fight against the British in return for the safety of Jews in Nazi-occupied Eastern Europe and their safe transfer to Palestine. Then, after 1942, they began to lend their support toward Stalin’s Bolshevism instead.

Lehi activities

The Lehi was always a minority, never with more than a few hundred members.
The Lehi's tactic was to carry out assassinations and bomb attacks against British and western politicians.
After Palestine was handed to the UN by Britain, the Lehi assassinated the UN mediator, Count Folke Bernadotte.
In 1948, the Lehi was responsible for the Deir Yassin massacre, where 120 Zionist paramilitaries killed over 107 Palestinian Arabs.

1High Water Mark of the British Empire, 1857-1914

1.1Development of Imperialism, 1857-1890

1.1.1Empires over Time

1.1.2Key Questions About Empires

1.1.3Expansion into Africa

1.1.4History of Egypt

1.1.5Control of Egypt

1.1.6Control of Sudan

1.2Imperial & Colonial Policy, 1857-1890

1.2.1The British Empire & India

1.2.2The British Raj

1.2.3International Relations with other Powers

1.2.4Scramble for Africa

1.2.5The Informal Empire

1.3Trade & Commerce, 1857-1890

1.3.1Trade & Commerce in the Empire

1.3.2Infrastructure of Trade & Commerce

1.3.3Products of Trade & Commerce

1.4Attitudes Towards the Empire, 1857-1890

1.4.1Explorers

1.4.2Missionaries

1.4.3Traders & Colonial Administrators

1.4.4Government Attitudes Towards Imperialism

1.5Relations with Indigenous Peoples, 1857-1890

1.5.1Relations with India

1.5.2Relations with South Africa

1.5.3British-Boer Relations

2Imperial Consolidation & Liberal Rule, 1890-1914

2.1Consolidation & Expansion in Africa, 1890-1914

2.1.1Consolidation & Expansion into Africa

2.1.2Consolidation & Expansion in South Africa

2.1.3Historical Interpretations: Expansion into Africa

2.2Imperial & Colonial Policy, 1890-1914

2.2.1Policy in India

2.2.2Policy in Egypt

2.2.3Native Policy in Colonies

2.2.4International Relations with Other Powers

2.3Trade & Commerce, 1890-1914

2.3.1The Benefits of Trade

2.3.2Costs of the Empire

2.3.3Debates Over Trade

2.4Attitudes Towards the Empire, 1890-1914

2.4.1Key Administrators - Chamberlain & Rhodes

2.4.2Key Administrators - Baring & Milner

2.4.3Key Administrators - Curzon

2.4.4Government Attitudes to the Empire

2.4.5National Efficiency & the Boer War

2.4.6Popular Attitudes Towards Imperialism

2.5Relations with Indigenous Peoples, 1890-1914

2.5.1Challenges in India

2.5.2Challenges in Africa

2.5.3Challenges in South Africa

2.5.4Historical Interpretations of the Boer War

2.5.5Relations & Business with Iran

3Imperialism Challenged, 1914-1967

3.1Expansion & Contraction of Empire, 1914-1947

3.1.1Impact of WW1

3.1.2Palestine

3.1.3Ireland & WW1

3.1.4Impact of WW2 on the British Empire

3.2Colonial Policy & Administration, 1914-1947

3.2.1Administration in India & Palestine

3.2.2Administration in Iraq & the Dominions

3.2.3Imperial Defence

3.3Trade, Commerce & Economic Impact of War

3.3.1Economic Impact of WW1

3.3.2Inter-War Trade & Commerce

3.3.3Economic Impact of WW2

3.4Attitudes Towards the Empire, 1890-1914

3.4.1Colonial Administrators

3.4.2Trusteeship

3.4.3Gandhi

3.4.4Montagu, Haig & Linlithgow

3.4.5Cameron, Mitchell, Cohen & Furse - African Admins

3.4.6Imperialist Ideals

3.5Relations with Indigenous Peoples, 1914-1947

3.5.1Ireland & India 1914-1947

3.5.2The Middle East and Africa

4The Wind of Change, 1947-1967

4.1Decolonisation in Africa & Asia, 1947-1967

4.1.1Reasons for Decolonisation

4.1.2Decolonisation in East & West Africa

4.1.3Decolonisation in Central & South Africa

4.1.4Decolonisation in Asia

4.2Colonial Policy & Administration, 1947-1967

4.2.1Relations & Business with Iran after WW2

4.2.2The 'Winds of Change'

4.2.3The Suez Canal Crisis - 1956

4.2.4International Relations 1947-1967

4.3Trade & Commerce, 1947-1967

4.3.1The Economic Impact of WW2

4.4Attitudes Towards the Empire, 1947-1967

4.4.1Colonial Administrators: Cohen & Arden-Clarke

4.4.2Local Leaders in the Independence Movement

4.4.3Pan-Africanism in Nationalism

4.5Post-Colonial Ties, 1947-1967

4.5.1Windrush & Immigration

4.5.2Commonwealth Immigrants Act

4.5.3Residual Impact of the Empire

4.6Relations with Indigenous Peoples, 1947-1967

4.6.1Challenges to Colonial Rule Post 1947

4.6.2Kenya & the Mau Mau Uprising

4.6.3Nigeria & Rhodesia

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