Policy in Egypt

Imperial Policy in Egypt

Britain strove to assert control over Egypt. This was limited by strained relations between the Brits and the native population.

Limits to British policy in Egypt

In 1900, Egypt was still not a formal British colony. Instead, British military troops occupied Egypt but did not formally rule the country. The country formally was a Turkish/Ottoman property.
British citizens in Egypt relied on something called 'The Capitulations' to protect them from Muslim laws, allowing them to act freely and in line with their Christian beliefs.

Egypt's tax revenue

50% of Egypt's tax revenue was paid to a consortium of European creditors (or bondholders). This limited where Britain could allocate Egypt's budget (this was named the Caisse de la Dette).
Britain influenced Egyptian policy but had to stay in-line with Turkish and Muslim values and the financial demands of European rivals like Germany & Italy.

British policy in Egypt under Baring

British policy in Egypt was led by the Consul General Evelyn Baring (Lord Cromer) from 1883 to 1907.
There was a partially elected parliament, but all Egyptian ministers had the ‘support’ of a British advisor, meaning they were effectively chosen by Baring.

Measures introduced by Baring

Baring improved the efficiency of Egyptian farming, tried to cut government spending to repay Egypt's European creditors, and encouraged tourism in Egypt.
- Thomas Cook & Son, founded in 1841, funnelled rich British tourists to Egypt in the Baring era.
The productivity of Egypt's cotton and sugar industries rose by 200% under Baring's rule and in 1902, he presided over the construction of the Aswan Dam (which provided water for irrigation in the agricultural industry).

British military influence under Baring

During Baring's time as Consul-General of Egypt, over 5,000 British soldiers were added to Egypt's military forces. This allowed Britain to control Egypt's army, as well as its finances and policy, despite it being a Turkish-owned region.

The Denshawai Incident and Egyptian Nationalism

The Denshawai incident occurred in 1906. After the Denshawai incident, Evelyn Baring was replaced by Gorst (1907-11).

The Denshawai Incident, 1906

The Denshawai incident occurred in 1906.
- This was an Anglo-Egyptian clash surrounding a pigeon shooting incident that left an Egyptian wounded and a British officer killed.
- Britain’s heavy-handed response saw four Egyptians sentenced to death.
- Baring resigned amidst the controversy surrounding British rule in Egypt.

Nationalism in Egypt 1900-1914

Mustafa Kamil Pasha led Egyptian nationalism at the start of the 20th Century. He had been educated in France and was versed in the French Revolution against an overbearing ruler.
Wilfrid Blunt led the cause for Egyptian nationalism from the UK with his book in 1907, The Secret History of the English Occupation in Egypt.
Deprivation for the Egyptian population, caused by World War 1 would cause anti-British sentiment and Egyptian nationalism to rise.
However, The upper class typically benefited from British occupation.

British policy in Egypt up to WW1

After the Denshawai incident, Evelyn Baring was replaced by Gorst (1907-11).
- Gorst brought more Egyptians into government and tightened censorship against the press to reduce the pro-nationalist stories being published.

Role of Kitchener in Egypt

Gorst was replaced by Kitchener (1911-14) who led Britain's military forays into Sudan a decade before. Kitchener increased British control of Egypt up to the start of World War One.
In 1914, Britain was formally at war with the Ottoman Empire, the owner of Egypt. Britain removed the Khedive, replaced him with a pro-British supporter and declared that Egypt had become a British protectorate in November 1914.

1High Water Mark of the British Empire, 1857-1914

1.1Development of Imperialism, 1857-1890

1.1.1Empires over Time

1.1.2Key Questions About Empires

1.1.3Expansion into Africa

1.1.4History of Egypt

1.1.5Control of Egypt

1.1.6Control of Sudan

1.2Imperial & Colonial Policy, 1857-1890

1.2.1The British Empire & India

1.2.2The British Raj

1.2.3International Relations with other Powers

1.2.4Scramble for Africa

1.2.5The Informal Empire

1.3Trade & Commerce, 1857-1890

1.3.1Trade & Commerce in the Empire

1.3.2Infrastructure of Trade & Commerce

1.3.3Products of Trade & Commerce

1.4Attitudes Towards the Empire, 1857-1890

1.4.1Explorers

1.4.2Missionaries

1.4.3Traders & Colonial Administrators

1.4.4Government Attitudes Towards Imperialism

1.5Relations with Indigenous Peoples, 1857-1890

1.5.1Relations with India

1.5.2Relations with South Africa

1.5.3British-Boer Relations

2Imperial Consolidation & Liberal Rule, 1890-1914

2.1Consolidation & Expansion in Africa, 1890-1914

2.1.1Consolidation & Expansion into Africa

2.1.2Consolidation & Expansion in South Africa

2.1.3Historical Interpretations: Expansion into Africa

2.2Imperial & Colonial Policy, 1890-1914

2.2.1Policy in India

2.2.2Policy in Egypt

2.2.3Native Policy in Colonies

2.2.4International Relations with Other Powers

2.3Trade & Commerce, 1890-1914

2.3.1The Benefits of Trade

2.3.2Costs of the Empire

2.3.3Debates Over Trade

2.4Attitudes Towards the Empire, 1890-1914

2.4.1Key Administrators - Chamberlain & Rhodes

2.4.2Key Administrators - Baring & Milner

2.4.3Key Administrators - Curzon

2.4.4Government Attitudes to the Empire

2.4.5National Efficiency & the Boer War

2.4.6Popular Attitudes Towards Imperialism

2.5Relations with Indigenous Peoples, 1890-1914

2.5.1Challenges in India

2.5.2Challenges in Africa

2.5.3Challenges in South Africa

2.5.4Historical Interpretations of the Boer War

2.5.5Relations & Business with Iran

3Imperialism Challenged, 1914-1967

3.1Expansion & Contraction of Empire, 1914-1947

3.1.1Impact of WW1

3.1.2Palestine

3.1.3Ireland & WW1

3.1.4Impact of WW2 on the British Empire

3.2Colonial Policy & Administration, 1914-1947

3.2.1Administration in India & Palestine

3.2.2Administration in Iraq & the Dominions

3.2.3Imperial Defence

3.3Trade, Commerce & Economic Impact of War

3.3.1Economic Impact of WW1

3.3.2Inter-War Trade & Commerce

3.3.3Economic Impact of WW2

3.4Attitudes Towards the Empire, 1890-1914

3.4.1Colonial Administrators

3.4.2Trusteeship

3.4.3Gandhi

3.4.4Montagu, Haig & Linlithgow

3.4.5Cameron, Mitchell, Cohen & Furse - African Admins

3.4.6Imperialist Ideals

3.5Relations with Indigenous Peoples, 1914-1947

3.5.1Ireland & India 1914-1947

3.5.2The Middle East and Africa

4The Wind of Change, 1947-1967

4.1Decolonisation in Africa & Asia, 1947-1967

4.1.1Reasons for Decolonisation

4.1.2Decolonisation in East & West Africa

4.1.3Decolonisation in Central & South Africa

4.1.4Decolonisation in Asia

4.2Colonial Policy & Administration, 1947-1967

4.2.1Relations & Business with Iran after WW2

4.2.2The 'Winds of Change'

4.2.3The Suez Canal Crisis - 1956

4.2.4International Relations 1947-1967

4.3Trade & Commerce, 1947-1967

4.3.1The Economic Impact of WW2

4.4Attitudes Towards the Empire, 1947-1967

4.4.1Colonial Administrators: Cohen & Arden-Clarke

4.4.2Local Leaders in the Independence Movement

4.4.3Pan-Africanism in Nationalism

4.5Post-Colonial Ties, 1947-1967

4.5.1Windrush & Immigration

4.5.2Commonwealth Immigrants Act

4.5.3Residual Impact of the Empire

4.6Relations with Indigenous Peoples, 1947-1967

4.6.1Challenges to Colonial Rule Post 1947

4.6.2Kenya & the Mau Mau Uprising

4.6.3Nigeria & Rhodesia

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