Control of Egypt

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History of the Suez Canal

The Suez Canal is a manmade waterway that connects the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea.

The location of the Suez Canal

The Suez Canal connects the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea.
The Suez Canal cuts off the Sinai Peninsula (in Asia) from the African continent.
Prior to the construction of the Suez, ships had to sail around the south of Africa in order to reach the Indian Ocean.
The distance by boat from London to the Gulf of Arabia was reduced by approximately 5,000 miles.

The design of the Suez Canal

Then Khedive of Egypt, Sa'id Pasha granted a concession to French architect Ferdinand de Lesseps in 1854 to build the canal.
British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston opposed the canal due to its effect on British trade, as well as scepticism on its suitability for large ships:
- "The British Government will use all the influence it possesses to frustrate the realisation of this project. "

The construction of the Suez Canal

The canal took 10 years to construct, during which Sa'id Pasha died and was succeeded by his nephew Isma'il Pasha.
The canal was primarily built by Egyptian forced labourers, which was outlawed in 1864 by a decree from Napoleon III.
The canal was opened in 1869.

Consequences of the Construction of the Suez Canal

In the second half of the 19th century, Britain began to gain a foothold in Egypt.

Panic of 1873

The opening of the Suez in 1869 rendered British trade posts in the Cape redundant, where stock for trading had been stored in British warehouses.
This contributed to an economic depression known as the 'Panic of 1873' which occurred in both Europe and North America.

Britain's control of the Suez Canal

By 1875, Isma'il Pasha's westernisation efforts led to Egypt accruing a large amount of national debt.
From Isma'il's accession in 1863 to 1875, Egypt's national debt went from around £7 million to £100 million.
In order to pay his debts, Isma'il sold 44% of his shares in the Suez Canal Company to British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli on behalf of the British government.
Disraeli was granted a private loan of £4 million from Lionel de Rothschild without obtaining parliamentary consent first.
This marked the beginning of an increased British presence in Egypt.

1879

Isma'il was deposed in 1879 by the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II due to his economic mismanagement, with the support of both Britain and France.
His son, Tewfiq Pasha, was instead proclaimed as the Khedive of Egypt.
Tewfiq's reign was supported by British and French investment.
Measures were introduced to improve the Egyptian economy, such as:
- Taxation on goods was increased.
- The national army was reduced by two thirds.

Arabi Revolt 1882

The Egyptian people had continuously been ruled by foreigners, from the Ottomans to the Khedives and the increasing presence of Europeans.
This fuelled nationalist sentiments, leading to Colonel Arabi Pasha mounting an uprising in 1882 known as the Arabi Revolt.
Prime Minister Gladstone sent naval forces to bombard Alexandria, seeing the opportunity to increase the British presence in Egypt.
- High tensions resulted in the death of fifty Europeans on the streets of Alexandria in June 1882.

1883

Britain defeated Arabi's Egyptian army at the Battle of Tel El Kabir on 13 September 1882, as well as securing control of the Suez Canal.
Tewfiq was installed by the British as a puppet ruler, meaning he acted as the head of state but was subject to Britain's whims.
Major Evelyn Baring was appointed as Consul-General of Egypt in 1883, which ensured British interests were catered for by Tewfiq's government.

Veiled protectorate

Egypt was granted a loan during The Convention of London 1885, which confirmed Britain’s rule in Egypt as a ‘veiled protectorate’.
- A protectorate is a state that does not possess full sovereignty on its own but has been granted some autonomy by a greater state.
This meant that Egypt was effectively ruled by Baring, though it was not codified in law.

1High Water Mark of the British Empire, 1857-1914

1.1Development of Imperialism, 1857-1890

1.1.1Empires over Time

1.1.2Key Questions About Empires

1.1.3Expansion into Africa

1.1.4History of Egypt

1.1.5Control of Egypt

1.1.6Control of Sudan

1.2Imperial & Colonial Policy, 1857-1890

1.2.1The British Empire & India

1.2.2The British Raj

1.2.3International Relations with other Powers

1.2.4Scramble for Africa

1.2.5The Informal Empire

1.3Trade & Commerce, 1857-1890

1.3.1Trade & Commerce in the Empire

1.3.2Infrastructure of Trade & Commerce

1.3.3Products of Trade & Commerce

1.4Attitudes Towards the Empire, 1857-1890

1.4.1Explorers

1.4.2Missionaries

1.4.3Traders & Colonial Administrators

1.4.4Government Attitudes Towards Imperialism

1.5Relations with Indigenous Peoples, 1857-1890

1.5.1Relations with India

1.5.2Relations with South Africa

1.5.3British-Boer Relations

2Imperial Consolidation & Liberal Rule, 1890-1914

2.1Consolidation & Expansion in Africa, 1890-1914

2.1.1Consolidation & Expansion into Africa

2.1.2Consolidation & Expansion in South Africa

2.1.3Historical Interpretations: Expansion into Africa

2.2Imperial & Colonial Policy, 1890-1914

2.2.1Policy in India

2.2.2Policy in Egypt

2.2.3Native Policy in Colonies

2.2.4International Relations with Other Powers

2.3Trade & Commerce, 1890-1914

2.3.1The Benefits of Trade

2.3.2Costs of the Empire

2.3.3Debates Over Trade

2.4Attitudes Towards the Empire, 1890-1914

2.4.1Key Administrators - Chamberlain & Rhodes

2.4.2Key Administrators - Baring & Milner

2.4.3Key Administrators - Curzon

2.4.4Government Attitudes to the Empire

2.4.5National Efficiency & the Boer War

2.4.6Popular Attitudes Towards Imperialism

2.5Relations with Indigenous Peoples, 1890-1914

2.5.1Challenges in India

2.5.2Challenges in Africa

2.5.3Challenges in South Africa

2.5.4Historical Interpretations of the Boer War

2.5.5Relations & Business with Iran

3Imperialism Challenged, 1914-1967

3.1Expansion & Contraction of Empire, 1914-1947

3.1.1Impact of WW1

3.1.2Palestine

3.1.3Ireland & WW1

3.1.4Impact of WW2 on the British Empire

3.2Colonial Policy & Administration, 1914-1947

3.2.1Administration in India & Palestine

3.2.2Administration in Iraq & the Dominions

3.2.3Imperial Defence

3.3Trade, Commerce & Economic Impact of War

3.3.1Economic Impact of WW1

3.3.2Inter-War Trade & Commerce

3.3.3Economic Impact of WW2

3.4Attitudes Towards the Empire, 1890-1914

3.4.1Colonial Administrators

3.4.2Trusteeship

3.4.3Gandhi

3.4.4Montagu, Haig & Linlithgow

3.4.5Cameron, Mitchell, Cohen & Furse - African Admins

3.4.6Imperialist Ideals

3.5Relations with Indigenous Peoples, 1914-1947

3.5.1Ireland & India 1914-1947

3.5.2The Middle East and Africa

4The Wind of Change, 1947-1967

4.1Decolonisation in Africa & Asia, 1947-1967

4.1.1Reasons for Decolonisation

4.1.2Decolonisation in East & West Africa

4.1.3Decolonisation in Central & South Africa

4.1.4Decolonisation in Asia

4.2Colonial Policy & Administration, 1947-1967

4.2.1Relations & Business with Iran after WW2

4.2.2The 'Winds of Change'

4.2.3The Suez Canal Crisis - 1956

4.2.4International Relations 1947-1967

4.3Trade & Commerce, 1947-1967

4.3.1The Economic Impact of WW2

4.4Attitudes Towards the Empire, 1947-1967

4.4.1Colonial Administrators: Cohen & Arden-Clarke

4.4.2Local Leaders in the Independence Movement

4.4.3Pan-Africanism in Nationalism

4.5Post-Colonial Ties, 1947-1967

4.5.1Windrush & Immigration

4.5.2Commonwealth Immigrants Act

4.5.3Residual Impact of the Empire

4.6Relations with Indigenous Peoples, 1947-1967

4.6.1Challenges to Colonial Rule Post 1947

4.6.2Kenya & the Mau Mau Uprising

4.6.3Nigeria & Rhodesia

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