Scramble for Africa

Scramble for Africa: The Brussels Conference

In the late 19th century, European powers all tried to establish their empires in Africa. This was called the "Scramble for Africa".

The Brussels Conference

The Brussels Conference was hosted by King Leopold II of Belgium in 1876.
- Today, King Leopold II is remembered for his rule of what is now known as the Democratic Republic of Congo.
During Leopold's rule, 10 million local people were killed or died from famine.
- Local men were forced to work on rubber plantations instead of farming crops, which led to a shortage of food.
Belgium exploited the DRC's natural resources.

Decisions made at the Brussels Conference

At the Brussels Conference, it was decided that Africans were incapable of developing their natural resources, as many believed Africans to be an inferior race to Europeans.
- This became a vital justification for European intervention.
Tensions between European powers were raised as they became highly suspicious of each other’s motivations.

Leopold II's speech at the Brussels Conference

Leopold II reportedly said "To open up to civilization the only part of our globe which it has not yet penetrated, to pierce the darkness in which entire populations are enveloped, is, I venture to say, a crusade worthy of this age of progress, and I am happy to perceive how much the public feeling is in favor of its accomplishments; the tide is with us … Need I say that, in bringing you to Brussels, I have not been influenced by selfish views" to conference attendees.

Leopold II's speech cont.

Leopold's ideas of opening up civilisation and "piercing the darkness" reflect political leaders' views of the world outside Western Europe as uncivilized.
Leopold's use of "darkness" can be interpreted to refer to the lack of perceived cultural advancement in Africa, but also to its black African inhabitants. The racial ideology of the time pitted black Africans as a lesser race to white Europeans.
Given the scale of the violence of Leopold's rule in the Congo, you could interpret his use of the phrase "pierce the darkness" as being quite literal.

Scramble for Africa: The Berlin Conference & Assessment

In the late 19th century, European powers all tried to establish their empires in Africa. This was called the "Scramble for Africa".

The Berlin Conference

The Berlin Conference was hosted by the German Chancellor, Otto von Bismarck in 1884-5.
The Berlin Conference 'carved up' Africa into arbitrary countries that the European countries could own, without consulting local people.
It was a landgrab and different tribes and peoples were arbitrarily separated or combined based on convenient geopolitics for the colonial powers.
De Blij & Muller (1997) said "The Berlin Conference was Africa’s undoing in more ways than one. The colonial powers superimposed their domains on the African continent."

Decisions made at the Berlin Conference

At the Berlin Conference, the principle of ‘effective occupation’ was established.
In 1884, 90% of Africa was controlled by local tribes or local populations.
- This meant that European powers had to demonstrate their capacity to defend and administer the region they occupied to claim rightful rule.
As a result of the conference, by 1902, 90% of the continent was in European hands. Almost all of this territory was seized from local people.
Matt Rosenberg (2019) said "The new countries lacked rhyme or reason and divided coherent groups of people and merged together disparate groups who really did not get along."

The Scramble for Africa

Historical assessment

A.J.P. Taylor saw the roots of WW1 in the Berlin Conference.
He argued that European powers began to battle in a ‘safe arena’ which eventually spilt over into European soil.
Martin Kitchen adds "originally the British had thought of African colonies as sources of slaves and as a means of securing the route to India'. He then adds that when the slave trade was officially banned in 1807 in the Slave Trade Act, ‘the West African colonies lost most of their importance".
- Between 1640 and 1807, 3.1 million slaves are estimated to have been traded through British colonies. Slaves were crammed onto ships in inhumane conditions and over 10% are thought to have died on the journey alone.

1High Water Mark of the British Empire, 1857-1914

1.1Development of Imperialism, 1857-1890

1.1.1Empires over Time

1.1.2Key Questions About Empires

1.1.3Expansion into Africa

1.1.4History of Egypt

1.1.5Control of Egypt

1.1.6Control of Sudan

1.2Imperial & Colonial Policy, 1857-1890

1.2.1The British Empire & India

1.2.2The British Raj

1.2.3International Relations with other Powers

1.2.4Scramble for Africa

1.2.5The Informal Empire

1.3Trade & Commerce, 1857-1890

1.3.1Trade & Commerce in the Empire

1.3.2Infrastructure of Trade & Commerce

1.3.3Products of Trade & Commerce

1.4Attitudes Towards the Empire, 1857-1890

1.4.1Explorers

1.4.2Missionaries

1.4.3Traders & Colonial Administrators

1.4.4Government Attitudes Towards Imperialism

1.5Relations with Indigenous Peoples, 1857-1890

1.5.1Relations with India

1.5.2Relations with South Africa

1.5.3British-Boer Relations

2Imperial Consolidation & Liberal Rule, 1890-1914

2.1Consolidation & Expansion in Africa, 1890-1914

2.1.1Consolidation & Expansion into Africa

2.1.2Consolidation & Expansion in South Africa

2.1.3Historical Interpretations: Expansion into Africa

2.2Imperial & Colonial Policy, 1890-1914

2.2.1Policy in India

2.2.2Policy in Egypt

2.2.3Native Policy in Colonies

2.2.4International Relations with Other Powers

2.3Trade & Commerce, 1890-1914

2.3.1The Benefits of Trade

2.3.2Costs of the Empire

2.3.3Debates Over Trade

2.4Attitudes Towards the Empire, 1890-1914

2.4.1Key Administrators - Chamberlain & Rhodes

2.4.2Key Administrators - Baring & Milner

2.4.3Key Administrators - Curzon

2.4.4Government Attitudes to the Empire

2.4.5National Efficiency & the Boer War

2.4.6Popular Attitudes Towards Imperialism

2.5Relations with Indigenous Peoples, 1890-1914

2.5.1Challenges in India

2.5.2Challenges in Africa

2.5.3Challenges in South Africa

2.5.4Historical Interpretations of the Boer War

2.5.5Relations & Business with Iran

3Imperialism Challenged, 1914-1967

3.1Expansion & Contraction of Empire, 1914-1947

3.1.1Impact of WW1

3.1.2Palestine

3.1.3Ireland & WW1

3.1.4Impact of WW2 on the British Empire

3.2Colonial Policy & Administration, 1914-1947

3.2.1Administration in India & Palestine

3.2.2Administration in Iraq & the Dominions

3.2.3Imperial Defence

3.3Trade, Commerce & Economic Impact of War

3.3.1Economic Impact of WW1

3.3.2Inter-War Trade & Commerce

3.3.3Economic Impact of WW2

3.4Attitudes Towards the Empire, 1890-1914

3.4.1Colonial Administrators

3.4.2Trusteeship

3.4.3Gandhi

3.4.4Montagu, Haig & Linlithgow

3.4.5Cameron, Mitchell, Cohen & Furse - African Admins

3.4.6Imperialist Ideals

3.5Relations with Indigenous Peoples, 1914-1947

3.5.1Ireland & India 1914-1947

3.5.2The Middle East and Africa

4The Wind of Change, 1947-1967

4.1Decolonisation in Africa & Asia, 1947-1967

4.1.1Reasons for Decolonisation

4.1.2Decolonisation in East & West Africa

4.1.3Decolonisation in Central & South Africa

4.1.4Decolonisation in Asia

4.2Colonial Policy & Administration, 1947-1967

4.2.1Relations & Business with Iran after WW2

4.2.2The 'Winds of Change'

4.2.3The Suez Canal Crisis - 1956

4.2.4International Relations 1947-1967

4.3Trade & Commerce, 1947-1967

4.3.1The Economic Impact of WW2

4.4Attitudes Towards the Empire, 1947-1967

4.4.1Colonial Administrators: Cohen & Arden-Clarke

4.4.2Local Leaders in the Independence Movement

4.4.3Pan-Africanism in Nationalism

4.5Post-Colonial Ties, 1947-1967

4.5.1Windrush & Immigration

4.5.2Commonwealth Immigrants Act

4.5.3Residual Impact of the Empire

4.6Relations with Indigenous Peoples, 1947-1967

4.6.1Challenges to Colonial Rule Post 1947

4.6.2Kenya & the Mau Mau Uprising

4.6.3Nigeria & Rhodesia

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