Challenges in Africa

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Challenges in Somaliland, Zanzibar, and West Africa

In Africa, the challenges to British rule were not as overt as they were in India.

Challenges to British rule in Somaliland

Mohammed Abdullah Hassan was a Somalian warrior who fought against British, Italian, and Abyssinian rule in Africa for over two decades. Hassan was colloquially known as the 'Mad Mullah'.
He led Dervish forces in an anti-Christian fight against the British and Europeans.
Hassan led guerrilla-style raids against British troops before building forts on the Somali peninsula.

Challenges to British rule in Zanzibar

Khalid bin Barghash (not to be confused with Sultan Barghash who dealt with Kirk) led a 3-day uprising against the British-supported Sultan in Zanzibar on the 25th of August 1896.
Britain regained control of Zanzibar on the 27th of August 1896. Khalid bin Barghash hid in the German consulate and was exiled to German East Africa.

Challenges to British rule in West Africa

In 1898, the Governor of the Protectorate of Sierra Leone (Frederick Cardew) introduced a hut tax (a tax on natives' dwellings). Cardew also shifted the responsibility for road maintenance from the state to the local chiefs and peoples (which was effectively another thing that they had to pay for).
Cardew hanged 96 chiefs for their resistance to these measures, which seemed disproportionate and undermined the idea of ruling a nation for the dual benefit of the British and the local people. It made British rule in Sierra Leone look like a pure money extraction exercise with little care for the local people.

Challenges in the Sudan

Sudan posed significant challenges to the British Empire.

The Fall of Khartoum

In 1884-5, the Mahdist Sudanese forces besieged Khartoum, a city where British and Egyptian forces were stationed.
The Governor-General of Sudan, Charles Gordon, was killed in 1885 in Khartoum by rebelling Mahdist forces.
In 1898, the British defeated the Sudanese at the Battle of Omdurman.
- Many believe that General Kitchener led his British forces to avenge Gordon's death.

The Battle of Omdurman

Kitchener constructed the Sudan Military Railway in order to give the British a transport advantage over local Mahdist troops. This was a 230-mile strip of railway track and telegraph wires to shorten travel times from weeks to hours and communication times to minutes.
In 1898, Kitchener won the Battle of Omdurman. Over 11,000 Madhist soldiers died in the battle relative to 50 Anglo-Egyptian-Sudanese soldiers.
- Some evidence suggests that Kitchener's forces looted Omdurman and executed wounded soldiers on the battlefield.

Mahdist uprisings

The local Mahdist group continually opposed British and Egyptian rule in Sudan and with fighting and violence flaring up in 1900, 1901, and 1904.
Again, British-backed troops were maintaining control of a region militarily.
There were also many reports of brutal conduct by British troops during and after the Battle of Omdurman, undermining British arguments that they were a 'civilising' force in the continent.

Local hostility

Britain struggled to maintain control of Sudan.
Tribes and chiefs would not pay taxes to the British.
- The tribes did not want British rule in their country and did not want to pay taxes to a government or ruler that they did not want.

British response to opposition

To maintain its increasingly illegitimate control, Britain was forced to put down rebellion after rebellion in different areas in order to keep control of the country.
Rebels were hanged publicly.
It took over 3 decades to subdue the most ardent resisting tribes in the south of Sudan.

Economic development in Sudan

Despite the difficulties of establishing political control, the British did help cultivate some economic development (especially in the Nile Valley).
The Sudan Military Railway could be used for productive peaceful purposes, as well as its initial military purpose.
- Port Sudan was a new port city constructed in 1906.
- The Gezira Scheme, which was one of the world's largest irrigation schemes began in 1911, in an attempt to improve Sudan's agricultural industry.
The question for the local people was whether the lack of autonomy and political oppression was worth the minor economic development described above.

1High Water Mark of the British Empire, 1857-1914

1.1Development of Imperialism, 1857-1890

1.1.1Empires over Time

1.1.2Key Questions About Empires

1.1.3Expansion into Africa

1.1.4History of Egypt

1.1.5Control of Egypt

1.1.6Control of Sudan

1.2Imperial & Colonial Policy, 1857-1890

1.2.1The British Empire & India

1.2.2The British Raj

1.2.3International Relations with other Powers

1.2.4Scramble for Africa

1.2.5The Informal Empire

1.3Trade & Commerce, 1857-1890

1.3.1Trade & Commerce in the Empire

1.3.2Infrastructure of Trade & Commerce

1.3.3Products of Trade & Commerce

1.4Attitudes Towards the Empire, 1857-1890

1.4.1Explorers

1.4.2Missionaries

1.4.3Traders & Colonial Administrators

1.4.4Government Attitudes Towards Imperialism

1.5Relations with Indigenous Peoples, 1857-1890

1.5.1Relations with India

1.5.2Relations with South Africa

1.5.3British-Boer Relations

2Imperial Consolidation & Liberal Rule, 1890-1914

2.1Consolidation & Expansion in Africa, 1890-1914

2.1.1Consolidation & Expansion into Africa

2.1.2Consolidation & Expansion in South Africa

2.1.3Historical Interpretations: Expansion into Africa

2.2Imperial & Colonial Policy, 1890-1914

2.2.1Policy in India

2.2.2Policy in Egypt

2.2.3Native Policy in Colonies

2.2.4International Relations with Other Powers

2.3Trade & Commerce, 1890-1914

2.3.1The Benefits of Trade

2.3.2Costs of the Empire

2.3.3Debates Over Trade

2.4Attitudes Towards the Empire, 1890-1914

2.4.1Key Administrators - Chamberlain & Rhodes

2.4.2Key Administrators - Baring & Milner

2.4.3Key Administrators - Curzon

2.4.4Government Attitudes to the Empire

2.4.5National Efficiency & the Boer War

2.4.6Popular Attitudes Towards Imperialism

2.5Relations with Indigenous Peoples, 1890-1914

2.5.1Challenges in India

2.5.2Challenges in Africa

2.5.3Challenges in South Africa

2.5.4Historical Interpretations of the Boer War

2.5.5Relations & Business with Iran

3Imperialism Challenged, 1914-1967

3.1Expansion & Contraction of Empire, 1914-1947

3.1.1Impact of WW1

3.1.2Palestine

3.1.3Ireland & WW1

3.1.4Impact of WW2 on the British Empire

3.2Colonial Policy & Administration, 1914-1947

3.2.1Administration in India & Palestine

3.2.2Administration in Iraq & the Dominions

3.2.3Imperial Defence

3.3Trade, Commerce & Economic Impact of War

3.3.1Economic Impact of WW1

3.3.2Inter-War Trade & Commerce

3.3.3Economic Impact of WW2

3.4Attitudes Towards the Empire, 1890-1914

3.4.1Colonial Administrators

3.4.2Trusteeship

3.4.3Gandhi

3.4.4Montagu, Haig & Linlithgow

3.4.5Cameron, Mitchell, Cohen & Furse - African Admins

3.4.6Imperialist Ideals

3.5Relations with Indigenous Peoples, 1914-1947

3.5.1Ireland & India 1914-1947

3.5.2The Middle East and Africa

4The Wind of Change, 1947-1967

4.1Decolonisation in Africa & Asia, 1947-1967

4.1.1Reasons for Decolonisation

4.1.2Decolonisation in East & West Africa

4.1.3Decolonisation in Central & South Africa

4.1.4Decolonisation in Asia

4.2Colonial Policy & Administration, 1947-1967

4.2.1Relations & Business with Iran after WW2

4.2.2The 'Winds of Change'

4.2.3The Suez Canal Crisis - 1956

4.2.4International Relations 1947-1967

4.3Trade & Commerce, 1947-1967

4.3.1The Economic Impact of WW2

4.4Attitudes Towards the Empire, 1947-1967

4.4.1Colonial Administrators: Cohen & Arden-Clarke

4.4.2Local Leaders in the Independence Movement

4.4.3Pan-Africanism in Nationalism

4.5Post-Colonial Ties, 1947-1967

4.5.1Windrush & Immigration

4.5.2Commonwealth Immigrants Act

4.5.3Residual Impact of the Empire

4.6Relations with Indigenous Peoples, 1947-1967

4.6.1Challenges to Colonial Rule Post 1947

4.6.2Kenya & the Mau Mau Uprising

4.6.3Nigeria & Rhodesia

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