2.1.4

Duration Studies

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Peterson and Peterson (1959)

Peterson and Peterson (1959) wanted to test the theory that information is quickly lost from short-term memory if its not rehearsed.

Procedure

Procedure

  • Laboratory experiment.
  • 24 psychology students participated.
  • Participants had to try and recall random trigrams (three consecutive consonants like GPR) after different intervals of time (3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and 18 seconds).
  • During these intervals, participants had to count backwards from a random number in groups of three and four. This was to stop them from rehearsing the trigrams in their heads.
Results

Results

  • Participants could recall fewer trigrams as the time gap increased.
    • 3-second interval - participants recalled 80% correctly.
    • 6-second interval - participants recalled 50% correctly.
    • 18-second interval - participants recalled 10% correctly.
Conclusion

Conclusion

  • Our short-term memory has a limited duration when we can't rehearse information.
  • It's thought that decay (the automatic fading of memory that's not rehearsed) causes information loss from short-term memory.
Analysis

Analysis

  • Pros:
    • Good control of variables - because of the laboratory setting.
  • Cons:
    • Low ecological validity - because of the artificial set-up.
    • Lacking variety of stimulus - no data on whether the type of stimulus affects the duration of the short-term memory.

Bahrick et al. (1975) - Method

Bahrick et al. (1975) studied very long-term memory (VLTM) by testing the ability of people to recall the names of ex-classmates.

Method

Method

  • The researchers set up a series of three tests to test the long-term memory of 392 participants.
  • The participants were tested 15 years, 30 years, and 48 years after graduation.
Three tests

Three tests

  • Free recall:
    • Participants were asked to simply list the names of ex-classmates.
    • They were given no prompts or materials to help them.
  • Photo-recognition:
    • The participants were asked to recall the names of people from their photographs from their class yearbook.
    • No list of names was given.
  • Name-recognition:
    • The participants were asked to match the names of people to their photograph (i.e. they were given a randomised list of names).
Results

Results

  • The results showed that free recall (no pictures or memory cues) declined the most within 30 years, whereas name-recognition maintained a higher accuracy.
  • 15 years after graduation:
    • There was 90% accuracy for the name-recognition test.
    • 60% accuracy for the free recall test.
    • This was true even for large class sizes.
Results cont.

Results cont.

  • 30 years after graduation:
    • There was only 30% accuracy for free recall.
  • 48 years after graduation:
    • Name-recognition was 80% accurate.
    • Photo-recognition was 40% accurate.

Bahrick et al. (1975) - Conclusions

Bahrick et al. (1975) studied very long-term memory (VLTM) by testing the ability of people to recall the names of ex-classmates.

Conclusions

Conclusions

  • Overall, through the years recognition was more accurate than recall.
  • They concluded that the information is stored in the long-term memory but the information may be difficult to retrieve.
Conclusions cont.

Conclusions cont.

  • The forgetting process is very slow (compared to other studies which only examined memory in a laboratory setting).
  • Bahrick et al. attribute the slowness of forgetting to practice and the effect of overlearning.
Overlearning

Overlearning

  • People during high school spent a lot of time learning other peoples’ names and practising them.
    • In other words, names that are well practised are difficult to forget.
  • This information (the names) is meaningful to the participants. Perhaps more so than, for example, other knowledge learnt during the same time period.
Ecological validity

Ecological validity

  • A main strength of the study was the high ecological validity.
  • It was a field experiment conducted over a long period of time and tested name recall.
  • Name recall is a skill that the majority of people use every day.
Generalisability

Generalisability

  • But because name recall is generally more meaningful to people, the results cannot be generalised to other types of information that people may hold in their long-term memory.
    • E.g. childhood experiences, learned skills, etc.
Extraneous variables

Extraneous variables

  • The nature of the study made it very challenging to control for extraneous variables.
  • The study took place over approximately 50 years and so a lot of extraneous variables could have skewed the results.
    • E.g. the researchers could not control how much contact the participants had with each other.
    • It could be that some of them were in regular contact, increasing the amount of practice and so increasing the rate of recall.
Jump to other topics
1

Social Influence

1.1

Social Influence

1.1.1Conformity1.1.2Jenness' Conformity Study1.1.3Asch (1951)1.1.4Sherif (1935)1.1.5Conformity to Social Roles1.1.6End of Topic Test - Conformity1.1.7Obedience1.1.8Analysing Milgram's Experiment1.1.9Agentic State & Legitimate Authority1.1.10Variables of Obedience1.1.11Resistance to Social Influence1.1.12Minority Influence & Social Change1.1.13Minority Influence & Social Impact Theory1.1.14End of Topic Test - Social Influences1.1.15Exam-Style Question - Conformity1.1.16Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Social Influence
2

Memory

2.1

Memory

2.1.1Multi-Store Model of Memory2.1.2Short-Term vs Long-Term Memory2.1.3Support for the Multi-Store Model of Memory2.1.4Duration Studies2.1.5Capacity Studies2.1.6Coding Studies2.1.7The Working Memory Model2.1.8The Working Memory Model 22.1.9Support for the Working Memory Model2.1.10Explanations for Forgetting2.1.11Studies on Interference2.1.12Cue-Dependent Forgetting2.1.13Eyewitness Testimony - Loftus & Palmer2.1.14Eyewitness Testimony - Loftus2.1.15Eyewitness Testimony - Post-Event Discussion2.1.16Eyewitness Testimony - Age & Anxiety2.1.17Cognitive Interview2.1.18Cognitive Interview - Geiselman & Fisher2.1.19End of Topic Test - Memory2.1.20Exam-Style Question - Memory
3

Attachment

3.1

Attachment

3.1.1The Concept of Attachment3.1.2Animal Studies of Attachment3.1.3Explanations of Attachment3.1.4Attachment Types - Strange Situation3.1.5Cultural Differences in Attachment3.1.6Disruption of Attachment3.1.7Disruption of Attachment - Privation3.1.8Overcoming the Effects of Disruption3.1.9The Effects of Institutionalisation3.1.10Early Attachment3.1.11Critical Period of Attachment3.1.12End of Topic Test - Attachment3.1.13Exam-Style Question - Attachment3.1.14Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Attachment
4

Clinical Psychology & Mental Health

4.1

Clinical Psychology & Mental Health

4.1.1Deviation from Social Norms4.1.2Deviation from Social Norms 24.1.3Phobias, Depression & OCD4.1.4Phobias: Behavioural Approach4.1.5Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias4.1.6Depression: Cognitive Approach4.1.7OCD: Biological Approach4.1.8Evidence for the Biological Approach4.1.9End of Topic Test - Psychopathy4.1.10Exam-Style Question - Phobias4.1.11Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology4.1.12Diagnostic Misconceptions - Phobia vs Fear4.1.13Diagnostic Misconceptions - Depression & Self-Harm4.1.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - Desensitisation
5

Approaches in Psychology

5.1

Approaches in Psychology

5.1.1The Behaviourist Approach - Classical Conditioning5.1.2Pavlov's Experiment5.1.3Little Albert Study5.1.4The Behaviourist Approach - Operant Conditioning5.1.5Social Learning Theory5.1.6The Cognitive Approach 15.1.7The Cognitive Approach 25.1.8The Biological Approach5.1.9The Biological Approach 25.1.10Gottesman (1991) - Twin Studies5.1.11Brain Scanning5.1.12Structure of Personality & Little Hans5.1.13The Psychodynamic Approach (A2 only)5.1.14Humanistic Psychology (A2 only)5.1.15Aronoff (1957) (A2 Only)5.1.16End of Topic Test - Approaches
5.2

Comparison of Approaches (A2 only)

5.2.1Psychodynamic Approach5.2.2Cognitive Approach5.2.3Biological Approach5.2.4Behavioural Approach5.2.5End of Topic Test - Comparison of Approaches
6

Biopsychology

6.1

Biopsychology

6.1.1Nervous System Divisions6.1.2Neuron Structure & Function6.1.3Neurotransmitters6.1.4Endocrine System Function6.1.5Fight or Flight Response6.1.6The Brain (A2 only)6.1.7Localisation of Brain Function (A2 only)6.1.8Studying the Brain (A2 only)6.1.9CIMT (A2 Only) & Postmortem6.1.10Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Biopsychology6.1.11Diagnostic Misconceptions - Plasticity & Recovery6.1.12Diagnostic Misconceptions - Endogenous Pacemakers6.1.13End of Topic Test - Biopsychology
7

Research Methods

7.1

Research Methods

7.1.1Experimental Method7.1.2Observational Techniques7.1.3Covert, Overt & Controlled Observation7.1.4Self-Report Techniques7.1.5Correlations7.1.6Exam-Style Question - Research Methods7.1.7Diagnostic Misconceptions - Sign Test7.1.8Diagnostic Misconceptions - Content & Thematic7.1.9Diagnostic Misconceptions - Valid vs Reliable7.1.10Diagnostic Misconceptions - Confounding Variable7.1.11End of Topic Test - Research Methods
7.2

Scientific Processes

7.2.1Aims, Hypotheses & Sampling7.2.2Pilot Studies & Design7.2.3Questionnaires7.2.4Variables & Control7.2.5Demand Characteristics & Investigator Effects7.2.6Ethics7.2.7Limitations of Ethical Guidelines7.2.8Consent & Protection from Harm Studies7.2.9Peer Review & The Economy7.2.10Validity (A2 only)7.2.11Reliability (A2 only)7.2.12Features of Science (A2 only)7.2.13Paradigms & Falsifiability (A2 only)7.2.14Scientific Report (A2 only)7.2.15Scientific Report 2 (A2 only)7.2.16End of Topic Test - Scientific
7.3

Data Handling & Analysis

7.3.1Types of Data7.3.2Descriptive Statistics7.3.3Correlation7.3.4Evaluation of Descriptive Statistics7.3.5Presentation & Display of Data7.3.6Levels of Measurement (A2 only)7.3.7Coding in Content Analysis (A2 only)7.3.8Case Studies (A2 only)7.3.9End of Topic Test - Data Handling
7.4

Inferential Testing

7.4.1Introduction to Inferential Testing7.4.2Sign Test7.4.3Piaget Conservation Experiment7.4.4Non-Parametric Tests
8

Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)

8.1

Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)

8.1.1Culture Bias8.1.2Sub-Culture Bias8.1.3Gender Bias8.1.4Ethnocentrism8.1.5Cross Cultural Research8.1.6Free Will & Determinism8.1.7Comparison of Free Will & Determinism8.1.8Reductionism & Holism8.1.9Reductionist & Holistic Approaches8.1.10Nature-Nurture Debate8.1.11Interactionist Approach8.1.12Nature-Nurture Methods8.1.13Nature-Nurture Approaches8.1.14Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches8.1.15Socially Sensitive Research8.1.16End of Topic Test - Issues and Debates
9

Option 1: Relationships (A2 only)

9.1

Relationships: Sexual Relationships (A2 only)

9.1.1Factors Affecting Attraction: Self-Disclosure9.1.2Evaluation of Self-Disclosure Theory9.1.3Factors Affecting Attraction: Physical Attributes9.1.4Matching Hypothesis Studies9.1.5Factors Affecting Physical Attraction9.1.6Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 19.1.7Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 29.1.8Evaluation of Filter Theory9.1.9End of Topic Test - Relationships
9.2

Relationships: Romantic Relationships (A2 only)

9.2.1Social Exchange Theory9.2.2Evaluation of Social Exchange Theory9.2.3Equity Theory9.2.4Evaluation of Equity Theory9.2.5Rusbult’s Investment Model9.2.6Evaluation of Rusbult's Investment Model9.2.7Relationship Breakdown9.2.8Studies on Relationship Breakdown9.2.9Evaluation of Relationship Breakdown9.2.10End of Topic Test - Romantic relationships
9.3

Relationships: Online (A2 only)

9.3.1Online Relationships9.3.2Evaluation of Reduced Cues & Hyperpersonal9.3.3Self Disclosure in Online Relationships9.3.4Parasocial Relationships9.3.5Attachment Theory & Parasocial Relationships9.3.6Evaluation of Parasocial Relationship Theories9.3.7End of Topic Test - Online Relationships
10

Option 1: Gender (A2 only)

10.1

Gender (A2 only)

10.1.1Biological Sex10.1.2The Role of Hormones in Biological Sex10.1.3Biological Explanations of Gender Development10.1.4Gender Identities & BSRI10.1.5Kohlberg’s Theory of Gender Constancy10.1.6Evaluation of Kohlberg's Theory10.1.7Gender Schema Theory10.1.8Social Approach to Gender Development10.1.9Criticisms of Social Theory10.1.10Media Influence on Gender Development10.1.11Gender Incongruence10.1.12End of Topic Test - Gender
11

Option 1: Cognition & Development (A2 only)

11.1

Cognition & Development (A2 only)

11.1.1Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 111.1.2Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 211.1.3Schema Accommodation Assimilation & Equilibration11.1.4Piaget & Inhelder’s Three Mountains Task (1956)11.1.5Conservation & Class Inclusion11.1.6Evaluation of Piaget11.1.7Vygotsky11.1.8Evaluation of Vygotsky11.1.9Baillargeon11.1.10Baillargeon's studies11.1.11Evaluation of Baillargeon11.1.12Sense of Self & Theory of Mind11.1.13Baron-Cohen Studies11.1.14Selman’s Five Levels of Perspective Taking11.1.15Biological Basis of Social Cognition11.1.16Evaluation of Biological Basis of Social Cognition11.1.17Issues in Social Neuroscience11.1.18Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Cognition & Development11.1.19End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 111.1.20End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 211.1.21End of Topic Test - Cognition 3
12

Option 2: Schizophrenia (A2 only)

12.1

Schizophrenia: Diagnosis (A2 only)

12.1.1Symptoms of Schizophrenia12.1.2Issues in Diagnosis12.1.3Pinto (2017) & Copeland (1971)12.1.4End of Topic Test - Schizophrenia
12.2

Schizophrenia: Treatment (A2 only)

12.2.1Family-Based Psychological Explanations12.2.2Evaluation of Family-Based Explanations12.2.3Cognitive Explanations12.2.4Drug Therapies12.2.5Evaluation of Drug Therapies12.2.6Biological Explanations for Schizophrenia12.2.7Dopamine Hypothesis12.2.8Psychological Therapies 112.2.9Psychological Therapies 212.2.10Interactionist Approach - Diathesis-Stress Model12.2.11Interactionist Approach - Triggers & Treatment12.2.12Evaluation of the Interactionist Approach12.2.13Evaluation of Psychological Therapies12.2.14Diagnostic Misconceptions - CBT & CBTp12.2.15End of Topic Test - Treatments 112.2.16End of Topic Test - Treatments 2
13

Option 2: Eating Behaviour (A2 only)

13.1

Eating Behaviour (A2 only)

13.1.1Explanations for Food Preferences13.1.2Birch et al (1987) & Lowe et al (2004)13.1.3Control of Eating Behaviours13.1.4Control of Eating Behaviour: Leptin13.1.5Biological Explanations for Anorexia Nervosa13.1.6Psychological Explanations: Family Systems Theory13.1.7Psychological Explanations: Social Learning Theory13.1.8Psychological Explanations: Cognitive Theory13.1.9Biological Explanations for Obesity13.1.10Biological Explanations: Studies13.1.11Psychological Explanations13.1.12Psychological Explanations: Studies13.1.13End of Topic Test - Eating Behaviour
14

Option 2: Stress (A2 only)

14.1

Stress (A2 only)

14.1.1Physiology of Stress14.1.2Role of Stress in Illness14.1.3Role of Stress in Illness: Studies14.1.4Social Readjustment Rating Scales14.1.5Hassles & Uplifts Scales14.1.6Stress, Workload & Control14.1.7Stress Level Studies14.1.8Physiological Measures of Stress14.1.9Individual Differences14.1.10Stress & Gender14.1.11Drug Therapy & Biofeedback for Stress14.1.12Stress Inoculation Therapy14.1.13Social Support & Stress14.1.14End of Topic Test - Stress 114.1.15End of Topic Test - Stress 2
15

Option 3: Aggression (A2 only)

15.1

Aggression: Physiological (A2 only)

15.1.1Neural Mechanisms15.1.2Serotonin15.1.3Hormonal Mechanisms15.1.4Genetic Factors15.1.5Genetic Factors 215.1.6Ethological Explanation15.1.7Innate Releasing Mechanisms & Fixed Action Pattern15.1.8Evolutionary Explanations15.1.9Buss et al (1992) - Sex Differences in Jealousy15.1.10Evaluation of Evolutionary Explanations15.1.11End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 115.1.12End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 2
15.2

Aggression: Social Psychological (A2 only)

15.2.1Social Psychological Explanation15.2.2Buss (1963) - Frustration/Aggression15.2.3Social Psychological Explanation 215.2.4Social Learning Theory (SLT) 115.2.5Social Learning Theory (SLT) 215.2.6Limitations of Social Learning Theory (SLT)15.2.7Deindividuation15.2.8Deindividuation 215.2.9Deindividuation - Diener et al (1976)15.2.10End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology15.2.11Institutional Aggression: Prisons15.2.12Evaluation of Dispositional & Situational15.2.13Influence of Computer Games15.2.14Influence of Television15.2.15Evaluation of Studies on Media15.2.16Desensitisation & Disinhibition15.2.17Cognitive Priming15.2.18End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology
16

Option 3: Forensic Psychology (A2 only)

16.1

Forensic Psychology (A2 only)

16.1.1Defining Crime16.1.2Measuring Crime16.1.3Offender Profiling16.1.4Evaluation of Offender Profiling16.1.5John Duffy Case Study16.1.6Biological Explanations 116.1.7Biological Explanations 216.1.8Evaluation- Biological Explanations16.1.9Cognitive Explanations16.1.10Moral Reasoning16.1.11Differential Association Theory16.1.12Custodial Sentencing16.1.13Effects of Prison16.1.14Evaluation of the Effects of Prison16.1.15Behavioural Treatments & Therapies16.1.16Effectiveness of Behavioural Treatments16.1.17Restorative Justice16.1.18End of Topic Test - Forensic 116.1.19End of Topic Test - Forensic 2
17

Option 3: Addiction (A2 only)

17.1

Addiction (A2 only)

17.1.1Definition17.1.2Brain Neurochemistry Explanation17.1.3Learning Theory Explanation17.1.4Evaluation of a Learning Theory17.1.5Cognitive Bias17.1.6Griffiths on Cognitive Bias17.1.7Evaluation of Cognitive Theory (A2 only)17.1.8Gambling Addiction & Learning Theory17.1.9Social Influences on Addiction 117.1.10Social Influences on Addiction 217.1.11Personal Influences on Addiction17.1.12Genetic Explanations of Addiction17.1.13End of Topic Test - Addiction 117.1.14End of Topic Test - Addiction 2
17.2

Treating Addiction (A2 only)

17.2.1Drug Therapy17.2.2Behavioural Interventions17.2.3Cognitive Behavioural Therapy17.2.4Six Stage Model of Behaviour Change17.2.5End of Topic Test - Treating

Practice questions on Duration Studies

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  1. 1
    Procedure of Peterson and Peterson (1959):Fill in the list
  2. 2
    Results from Peterson and Peterson (1959):True / false
  3. 3
    Features of Bahrick et al. (1975):True / false
  4. 4
    Method of Bahrick et al. (1975):Fill in the list
  5. 5
    In which test in __Bahrick et al. (1975)__ were the participants given a randomised list of names and asked to match the names of people to their photograph? Multiple choice
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Support for the Multi-Store Model of Memory

Capacity Studies