6.1.14
Mutations
Mutations
Mutations
A mutation is a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA. Mutations happen continuously and normally only slightly affect proteins or don't affect them at all. Occasionally, a mutation may change the structure or shape of a protein. All genetic variants arise from mutations.
Undesirable change
Undesirable change
- The outcome of a mutation is almost always detrimental to protein function.
- For example, in enzymes, the substrate may no longer be able to bind to the active site. In structural proteins, their strength may be reduced.
- Some regions of DNA do not encode protein sequences.
- The term given to these sections is non-coding DNA.
Survival advantage
Survival advantage
- More rarely, a mutation may give a survival advantage, such as resistance to an antibiotic in bacteria.
- These mutations can be beneficial and represent the foundation of evolution by natural selection.
1Cell Biology
1.1What's in Cells?
1.1.1Types of Cells
1.1.2Properties of Prokaryotes
1.1.3Standard Form
1.1.4Orders of Magnitude
1.1.5Standard Form - Calculations
1.1.6Addition in Standard Form - Calculations
1.1.7Subtraction in Standard Form - Calculations
1.1.8Multiplication in Standard Form - Calculations
1.1.9Division in Standard Form - Calculations
1.1.10Animal Cells
1.1.11Plant Cells
1.1.12Differences Between Animal & Plant Cells
1.1.13Bacterial Cells
1.1.14Types of Cells HyperLearning
1.1.15Cell Specialisation in Animals
1.1.16Sperm Cells
1.1.17Nerve Cells
1.1.18Muscle Cells
1.1.19Cell Specialisation in Plants - Root Hair Cells
1.1.20Cell Specialisation in Plants - Xylem
1.1.21Cell Specialisation in Plants - Phloem
1.1.22Microscopy
1.1.23Magnification
1.1.24Developments in Microscopy
1.1.25Required Practical - Microscopy
1.1.26Microscopy - Calculations
1.1.27Culturing Microorganisms
1.1.28Contamination
1.1.29Avoiding Contamination
1.1.30Calculating Bacteria
1.1.31Calculating Bacteria - Calculations
1.1.32End of Topic Test - What's in Cells?
1.1.33Exam-Style Questions - Cell Structure & Microscopy
1.2Cell Division
1.3Transport in Cells
1.3.1Diffusion
1.3.2Factors Affecting Diffusion
1.3.3Surface Area : Volume
1.3.4Surface Area : Volume - Calculations
1.3.5Exchange Surfaces
1.3.6Examples of Exchange Surfaces
1.3.7Osmosis
1.3.8Required Practical - Osmosis
1.3.9Active Transport
1.3.10Transport in Cells
1.3.11End of Topic Test - Cell Division & Transport
1.3.12Grade 9 - Cell Transport
2Organisation
2.1Principles of Organisation
2.2Enzymes
2.2.1Enzymes
2.2.2Enzymes HyperFlashcards
2.2.3Rate of Reaction
2.2.4Calculating Rate of Reaction
2.2.5Rate of Reaction - Calculations
2.2.6Digestion
2.2.7Bile
2.2.8Examples of Digestive Enzymes - Amylase
2.2.9Examples of Digestive Enzymes - Protease
2.2.10Examples of Digestive Enzymes - Lipase
2.2.11Testing for Biological Molecules
2.2.12End of Topic Test - Organisation & Enzymes
2.2.13Grade 9 - Enzymes
2.2.14Exam-Style Questions - Enzymes
2.3Circulatory System
2.3.1Types of Blood Vessel
2.3.2Blood Vessels - Arteries
2.3.3Blood Vessels - Capillaries
2.3.4Blood Vessels - Veins
2.3.5The Heart - Structure
2.3.6The Heart - Function
2.3.7Important Blood Vessels
2.3.8Double Circulatory System
2.3.9Gas Exchange
2.3.10Gas Exchange - Calculations
2.3.11Alveoli
2.3.12Blood Components
2.3.13Platelets
2.3.14Red Blood Cells
2.3.15White Blood Cells
2.3.16End of Topic Test - Circulatory System
2.4Non-Communicable Diseases
2.4.1Health Issues
2.4.2Disease Interactions
2.4.3Sampling
2.4.4Sampling - Calculations
2.4.5Risk Factors
2.4.6Examples of Risk Factors
2.4.7Risk Factor Graphs
2.4.8Coronary Heart Disease
2.4.9Heart Valve Disease
2.4.10Heart Failure
2.4.11Treating Heart Disease
2.4.12Comparing Treatments of Heart Disease
2.4.13Cancer
2.4.14Cancer Risk Factors
2.4.15End of Topic Test - Non-Communicable Diseases
2.4.16Exam-Style Questions - Coronary Heart Disease
2.5Plant Tissues, Organs & Systems
2.5.1Plant Organs
2.5.2Leaves
2.5.3Transpiration
2.5.4Rate of Transpiration
2.5.5Measuring Transpiration
2.5.6Translocation
2.5.7Transpiration Tissues - Xylem Cells
2.5.8Transpiration Tissues - Root Hair Cells
2.5.9Stomata
2.5.10States of Stomata
2.5.11Premium Knowledge - Transpiration
2.5.12End of Topic Test - Plants
2.5.13Exam-Style Questions - Plant Tissues
3Infection & Response
3.1Communicable Disease
3.1.1Spreading Disease
3.1.2Causing Diseases
3.1.3Preventing Infection
3.1.4Viruses
3.1.5Examples of Viruses
3.1.6Bacteria
3.1.7Fungi
3.1.8Protists
3.1.9Human Defence Systems - Non-Specific Defences
3.1.10Human Defence Systems - Immune Systems
3.1.11Antibodies
3.1.12Vaccinations
3.1.13The Immune System
3.1.14The Immune System 2
3.1.15Antibiotics
3.1.16Antibiotic Resistance
3.1.17Antibiotic Resistance 2
3.1.18Drug Discovery
3.1.19Developing New Drugs
3.1.20Drug Testing
3.1.21Drug Testing in Laboratories
3.1.22Double-Blind Trials
3.1.23Drug Testing / Efficacy - Calculations
3.1.24End of Topic Test - Communicable Diseases
3.1.25Exam-Style Questions - Microorganisms & Disease
3.2Monoclonal Antibodies
4Bioenergetics
4.1Photosynthesis
4.1.1Photosynthesis
4.1.2Photosynthesis Equation
4.1.3Rate of Photosynthesis
4.1.4Limiting Factors
4.1.5Photosynthesis in Farming
4.1.6Uses of Glucose
4.1.7Photosynthesis - Calculations
4.1.8Photosynthesis Experiments
4.1.9Photosynthesis Experiments 2
4.1.10Grade 9 - Photosynthesis Experiment
4.1.11Exam-Style Questions - Rate of Photosynthesis
5Homeostasis & Response
5.1Homeostasis
5.2The Human Nervous System
5.2.1The Nervous System
5.2.2The Nervous System HyperFlashcards
5.2.3Synapses
5.2.4Reflexes
5.2.5Components of a Reflex Arc
5.2.6Reflexes Practical
5.2.7Exam-Style Questions - Nervous System
5.2.8The Brain
5.2.9Parts of the Brain
5.2.10The Brain: Neuro Techniques
5.2.11Retina Scanning
5.2.12Eye Anatomy
5.2.13Eye Function - Focus
5.2.14Eye Function - Light
5.2.15Eye Defects
5.2.16Thermoregulation
5.2.17Hot & Cold
5.2.18Thermoregulation - Sweating & Shivering
5.2.19Thermoregulation - Body Hair
5.2.20Thermoregulation - Blood Vessels
5.2.21Body Temperature HyperLearning
5.2.22End of Topic Test - Human Nervous System
5.3Hormonal Coordination in Humans
5.3.1Endocrine Glands
5.3.2The Endocrine System
5.3.3Thyroxine
5.3.4Adrenaline
5.3.5Blood Glucose
5.3.6Detecting Glucose
5.3.7Diabetes
5.3.8Type 1 Diabetes
5.3.9Type 2 Diabetes
5.3.10Water Balance
5.3.11Kidneys
5.3.12Urea
5.3.13Urine Production
5.3.14Urine
5.3.15Dialysis
5.3.16Dialysis - Pros & Cons
5.3.17Transplants
5.3.18Transplants - Pros & Cons
5.3.19Puberty
5.3.20Menstruation
5.3.21Menstrual Hormones
5.3.22Menstrual Cycle
5.3.23Female Contraception - The Pill
5.3.24Female Contraception - Other Options
5.3.25Female Contraception - Diaphragm & IUDs
5.3.26Male Contraception - Condoms
5.3.27Male Contraception - Sterilisation
5.3.28Male Contraception - 'Natural Methods'
5.3.29Hormones for Infertility
5.3.30In Vitro Fertilisation
5.3.31Fertility Treatments - Pros & Cons
5.3.32End of Topic Test - Homeostasis & Hormones
5.3.33Grade 9 - Hormonal Coordination
5.3.34Exam-Style Questions - Hormones & Contraception
6Inheritance, Variation & Evolution
6.1Reproduction
6.1.1Cell Division
6.1.2Meiosis
6.1.3Sexual Reproduction
6.1.4Asexual Reproduction
6.1.5Sexual Reproduction Advantages
6.1.6Asexual Reproduction Advantages
6.1.7Genome
6.1.8Genome - Diagram
6.1.9Genome Sequencing
6.1.10Nucleotide
6.1.11DNA Structure
6.1.12Protein Synthesis
6.1.13Protein Synthesis 2
6.1.14Mutations
6.1.15Alleles
6.1.16Genotype vs Phenotype
6.1.17Punnett Squares
6.1.18Punnett Squares 2
6.1.19Inherited Disorders
6.1.20Cystic Fibrosis Punnett Square
6.1.21Family Trees
6.1.22Polydactyly
6.1.23Genetic Crosses - Calculations
6.1.24Genome Screening
6.1.25Disadvantages of Embryonic Screening
6.1.26Sex Determination
6.1.27End of Topic Test - Reproduction
6.1.28Exam-Style Questions - DNA & Genetics
6.2Variation & Evolution
6.2.1Variation
6.2.2Evolution & Speciation
6.2.3Natural Selection
6.2.4Selective Breeding
6.2.5Selective Breeding 2
6.2.6Uses of Selective Breeding
6.2.7Dangers of Selective Breeding
6.2.8Genetic Engineering
6.2.9Genetic Engineering 2
6.2.10Uses of Genetic Modification
6.2.11Advantages of Genetic Modification
6.2.12Disadvantages of Genetic Modification
6.2.13Cloning
6.2.14Cloning Plants
6.2.15Cloning Animals
6.2.16Adult Cell Cloning
6.2.17End of Topic Test - Variation & Evolution
6.2.18Exam-Style Questions - Selective Breeding
6.3Genetics & Evolution
7Ecology
7.1Adaptations & Interdependence
7.2Organisation of Ecosystems
7.2.1Population Dynamics
7.2.2Predator-Prey Graphs
7.2.3Impact of Environmental Change
7.2.4Causes of Environmental Change
7.2.5Assessing Ecosystems
7.2.6Organism Abundance
7.2.7Required Practical - Using Quadrats
7.2.8Assessing Ecosystems - Calculations
7.2.9The Carbon Cycle
7.2.10The Water Cycle
7.2.11The Cycling of Materials
7.2.12Decay
7.2.13Anaerobic Decay
7.2.14Biogas Generators
7.2.15Required Practical - Decay
7.2.16End of Topic Test - Organisation of Ecosystems
7.2.17Grade 9 - Ecosystems
7.2.18Exam-Style Questions - Decomposition
7.3Biodiversity
7.4Trophic Levels
Jump to other topics
1Cell Biology
1.1What's in Cells?
1.1.1Types of Cells
1.1.2Properties of Prokaryotes
1.1.3Standard Form
1.1.4Orders of Magnitude
1.1.5Standard Form - Calculations
1.1.6Addition in Standard Form - Calculations
1.1.7Subtraction in Standard Form - Calculations
1.1.8Multiplication in Standard Form - Calculations
1.1.9Division in Standard Form - Calculations
1.1.10Animal Cells
1.1.11Plant Cells
1.1.12Differences Between Animal & Plant Cells
1.1.13Bacterial Cells
1.1.14Types of Cells HyperLearning
1.1.15Cell Specialisation in Animals
1.1.16Sperm Cells
1.1.17Nerve Cells
1.1.18Muscle Cells
1.1.19Cell Specialisation in Plants - Root Hair Cells
1.1.20Cell Specialisation in Plants - Xylem
1.1.21Cell Specialisation in Plants - Phloem
1.1.22Microscopy
1.1.23Magnification
1.1.24Developments in Microscopy
1.1.25Required Practical - Microscopy
1.1.26Microscopy - Calculations
1.1.27Culturing Microorganisms
1.1.28Contamination
1.1.29Avoiding Contamination
1.1.30Calculating Bacteria
1.1.31Calculating Bacteria - Calculations
1.1.32End of Topic Test - What's in Cells?
1.1.33Exam-Style Questions - Cell Structure & Microscopy
1.2Cell Division
1.3Transport in Cells
1.3.1Diffusion
1.3.2Factors Affecting Diffusion
1.3.3Surface Area : Volume
1.3.4Surface Area : Volume - Calculations
1.3.5Exchange Surfaces
1.3.6Examples of Exchange Surfaces
1.3.7Osmosis
1.3.8Required Practical - Osmosis
1.3.9Active Transport
1.3.10Transport in Cells
1.3.11End of Topic Test - Cell Division & Transport
1.3.12Grade 9 - Cell Transport
2Organisation
2.1Principles of Organisation
2.2Enzymes
2.2.1Enzymes
2.2.2Enzymes HyperFlashcards
2.2.3Rate of Reaction
2.2.4Calculating Rate of Reaction
2.2.5Rate of Reaction - Calculations
2.2.6Digestion
2.2.7Bile
2.2.8Examples of Digestive Enzymes - Amylase
2.2.9Examples of Digestive Enzymes - Protease
2.2.10Examples of Digestive Enzymes - Lipase
2.2.11Testing for Biological Molecules
2.2.12End of Topic Test - Organisation & Enzymes
2.2.13Grade 9 - Enzymes
2.2.14Exam-Style Questions - Enzymes
2.3Circulatory System
2.3.1Types of Blood Vessel
2.3.2Blood Vessels - Arteries
2.3.3Blood Vessels - Capillaries
2.3.4Blood Vessels - Veins
2.3.5The Heart - Structure
2.3.6The Heart - Function
2.3.7Important Blood Vessels
2.3.8Double Circulatory System
2.3.9Gas Exchange
2.3.10Gas Exchange - Calculations
2.3.11Alveoli
2.3.12Blood Components
2.3.13Platelets
2.3.14Red Blood Cells
2.3.15White Blood Cells
2.3.16End of Topic Test - Circulatory System
2.4Non-Communicable Diseases
2.4.1Health Issues
2.4.2Disease Interactions
2.4.3Sampling
2.4.4Sampling - Calculations
2.4.5Risk Factors
2.4.6Examples of Risk Factors
2.4.7Risk Factor Graphs
2.4.8Coronary Heart Disease
2.4.9Heart Valve Disease
2.4.10Heart Failure
2.4.11Treating Heart Disease
2.4.12Comparing Treatments of Heart Disease
2.4.13Cancer
2.4.14Cancer Risk Factors
2.4.15End of Topic Test - Non-Communicable Diseases
2.4.16Exam-Style Questions - Coronary Heart Disease
2.5Plant Tissues, Organs & Systems
2.5.1Plant Organs
2.5.2Leaves
2.5.3Transpiration
2.5.4Rate of Transpiration
2.5.5Measuring Transpiration
2.5.6Translocation
2.5.7Transpiration Tissues - Xylem Cells
2.5.8Transpiration Tissues - Root Hair Cells
2.5.9Stomata
2.5.10States of Stomata
2.5.11Premium Knowledge - Transpiration
2.5.12End of Topic Test - Plants
2.5.13Exam-Style Questions - Plant Tissues
3Infection & Response
3.1Communicable Disease
3.1.1Spreading Disease
3.1.2Causing Diseases
3.1.3Preventing Infection
3.1.4Viruses
3.1.5Examples of Viruses
3.1.6Bacteria
3.1.7Fungi
3.1.8Protists
3.1.9Human Defence Systems - Non-Specific Defences
3.1.10Human Defence Systems - Immune Systems
3.1.11Antibodies
3.1.12Vaccinations
3.1.13The Immune System
3.1.14The Immune System 2
3.1.15Antibiotics
3.1.16Antibiotic Resistance
3.1.17Antibiotic Resistance 2
3.1.18Drug Discovery
3.1.19Developing New Drugs
3.1.20Drug Testing
3.1.21Drug Testing in Laboratories
3.1.22Double-Blind Trials
3.1.23Drug Testing / Efficacy - Calculations
3.1.24End of Topic Test - Communicable Diseases
3.1.25Exam-Style Questions - Microorganisms & Disease
3.2Monoclonal Antibodies
4Bioenergetics
4.1Photosynthesis
4.1.1Photosynthesis
4.1.2Photosynthesis Equation
4.1.3Rate of Photosynthesis
4.1.4Limiting Factors
4.1.5Photosynthesis in Farming
4.1.6Uses of Glucose
4.1.7Photosynthesis - Calculations
4.1.8Photosynthesis Experiments
4.1.9Photosynthesis Experiments 2
4.1.10Grade 9 - Photosynthesis Experiment
4.1.11Exam-Style Questions - Rate of Photosynthesis
5Homeostasis & Response
5.1Homeostasis
5.2The Human Nervous System
5.2.1The Nervous System
5.2.2The Nervous System HyperFlashcards
5.2.3Synapses
5.2.4Reflexes
5.2.5Components of a Reflex Arc
5.2.6Reflexes Practical
5.2.7Exam-Style Questions - Nervous System
5.2.8The Brain
5.2.9Parts of the Brain
5.2.10The Brain: Neuro Techniques
5.2.11Retina Scanning
5.2.12Eye Anatomy
5.2.13Eye Function - Focus
5.2.14Eye Function - Light
5.2.15Eye Defects
5.2.16Thermoregulation
5.2.17Hot & Cold
5.2.18Thermoregulation - Sweating & Shivering
5.2.19Thermoregulation - Body Hair
5.2.20Thermoregulation - Blood Vessels
5.2.21Body Temperature HyperLearning
5.2.22End of Topic Test - Human Nervous System
5.3Hormonal Coordination in Humans
5.3.1Endocrine Glands
5.3.2The Endocrine System
5.3.3Thyroxine
5.3.4Adrenaline
5.3.5Blood Glucose
5.3.6Detecting Glucose
5.3.7Diabetes
5.3.8Type 1 Diabetes
5.3.9Type 2 Diabetes
5.3.10Water Balance
5.3.11Kidneys
5.3.12Urea
5.3.13Urine Production
5.3.14Urine
5.3.15Dialysis
5.3.16Dialysis - Pros & Cons
5.3.17Transplants
5.3.18Transplants - Pros & Cons
5.3.19Puberty
5.3.20Menstruation
5.3.21Menstrual Hormones
5.3.22Menstrual Cycle
5.3.23Female Contraception - The Pill
5.3.24Female Contraception - Other Options
5.3.25Female Contraception - Diaphragm & IUDs
5.3.26Male Contraception - Condoms
5.3.27Male Contraception - Sterilisation
5.3.28Male Contraception - 'Natural Methods'
5.3.29Hormones for Infertility
5.3.30In Vitro Fertilisation
5.3.31Fertility Treatments - Pros & Cons
5.3.32End of Topic Test - Homeostasis & Hormones
5.3.33Grade 9 - Hormonal Coordination
5.3.34Exam-Style Questions - Hormones & Contraception
6Inheritance, Variation & Evolution
6.1Reproduction
6.1.1Cell Division
6.1.2Meiosis
6.1.3Sexual Reproduction
6.1.4Asexual Reproduction
6.1.5Sexual Reproduction Advantages
6.1.6Asexual Reproduction Advantages
6.1.7Genome
6.1.8Genome - Diagram
6.1.9Genome Sequencing
6.1.10Nucleotide
6.1.11DNA Structure
6.1.12Protein Synthesis
6.1.13Protein Synthesis 2
6.1.14Mutations
6.1.15Alleles
6.1.16Genotype vs Phenotype
6.1.17Punnett Squares
6.1.18Punnett Squares 2
6.1.19Inherited Disorders
6.1.20Cystic Fibrosis Punnett Square
6.1.21Family Trees
6.1.22Polydactyly
6.1.23Genetic Crosses - Calculations
6.1.24Genome Screening
6.1.25Disadvantages of Embryonic Screening
6.1.26Sex Determination
6.1.27End of Topic Test - Reproduction
6.1.28Exam-Style Questions - DNA & Genetics
6.2Variation & Evolution
6.2.1Variation
6.2.2Evolution & Speciation
6.2.3Natural Selection
6.2.4Selective Breeding
6.2.5Selective Breeding 2
6.2.6Uses of Selective Breeding
6.2.7Dangers of Selective Breeding
6.2.8Genetic Engineering
6.2.9Genetic Engineering 2
6.2.10Uses of Genetic Modification
6.2.11Advantages of Genetic Modification
6.2.12Disadvantages of Genetic Modification
6.2.13Cloning
6.2.14Cloning Plants
6.2.15Cloning Animals
6.2.16Adult Cell Cloning
6.2.17End of Topic Test - Variation & Evolution
6.2.18Exam-Style Questions - Selective Breeding
6.3Genetics & Evolution
7Ecology
7.1Adaptations & Interdependence
7.2Organisation of Ecosystems
7.2.1Population Dynamics
7.2.2Predator-Prey Graphs
7.2.3Impact of Environmental Change
7.2.4Causes of Environmental Change
7.2.5Assessing Ecosystems
7.2.6Organism Abundance
7.2.7Required Practical - Using Quadrats
7.2.8Assessing Ecosystems - Calculations
7.2.9The Carbon Cycle
7.2.10The Water Cycle
7.2.11The Cycling of Materials
7.2.12Decay
7.2.13Anaerobic Decay
7.2.14Biogas Generators
7.2.15Required Practical - Decay
7.2.16End of Topic Test - Organisation of Ecosystems
7.2.17Grade 9 - Ecosystems
7.2.18Exam-Style Questions - Decomposition
7.3Biodiversity
7.4Trophic Levels
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