Opposition

Opposition to the Nazi Regime Between 1933 and 1939

There was opposition to the Nazi regime, revealed in studies of local archives as well as from oral history projects. Furthermore, opposition came in many forms and there were also varying degrees of compliance with the government.

Protestant opposition

The Confessional Church broke away from the Nazi Church.
Martin Niemöller and Dietrich Bonhöffer were members of the Confessional Church arrested for criticising the Nazi regime. Bonhöffer taught trainee ministers to resist Nazism and condemned the Nuremberg laws.

Catholic opposition

Catholic bishop von Galen criticised the regime. He was seen as too popular to be punished.
In 1937, the Pope publicly criticised the Nazi government for breaking the concordat, harassing priests and its idolatry of the German state and race.
The Catholic Church spoke out against key Nazi policies e.g. forced sterilisation.

Political opposition

The SPD and KPD operated underground. The SPD in Exile (SOPADE) had groups in industrial towns distributing leaflets.
The Düsseldorf Gestapo reported from 1936. The KPD and SPD used word of mouth plus setting up cells in factories, sports clubs etc. to encourage opposition.
A 1937 Gestapo report says such ‘propaganda’ was having some success.
The Kreisau Circle was a small group of conservative, monarchists formed in 1933 from army officers and aristocrats who opposed to Hitler.

Everyday opposition

The regime relied quite heavily on denunciation. Local studies show 50-80% of investigations were as a result of denunciation.
However, many denunciations were on spurious, personal grounds, based on grudges or jealousies rather than political accusations.
A random sample from the Düsseldorf Gestapo shows a decline in recorded dissident behaviour after 1937.
Humour (e.g. making jokes about Hitler) was another important means of opposition.

Historical assessment

Historian Hiden (1996) argues that ‘the persecution of hundreds of thousands of Germans [illustrates] that dissent and nonconformity must have been widespread.’
Peukert (1989) argues that ‘active resistance was only a minority affair…[it] mobilised tens of thousands of people…but remained decentralised…and…ineffectual.’
Hillenbrand (1994) argues that ‘many people found in the telling of such jokes only means to protest against the police state in which they live.’

Extent of Totalitarianism

The traditional view of Nazi Germany was that it was a totalitarian state supported by terror. Recently historians have argued that there were more people supporting, or cooperating with, the regime than previously thought.

Totalitarian

It was a one-party state with one Führer who was both president, chancellor and, from 1938, commander of all armed forces.
The state controlled the forces of repression, censorship and propaganda.
Gleichschaltung: Nazi influence was present in almost every aspect of daily life and society e.g. school curriculum, KdF, DAF, youth movements.

No real opposition

In any totalitarian state there are elements of opposition. The issue is how effectively it was dealt with. Instances of opposition were isolated and low key.
Resistance to the Nazi regime was very limited as most Germans supported it, or at least took no action against it. How completely these people believed in Nazism cannot be measured.
People’s courts and directing judges to rule according to the ‘will of the people’ sidelined opposition.

Not totally totalitarian

Historians argue the Gestapo was much weaker than previously thought, more reliant on its reputation and co-operation from the German people.
Mallman and Paul (1994):
- ‘Although the Nazi regime’s aspirations were totalitarian, the reality was not.’
Evidence of Gestapo activities shows it often relied upon denunciations the German people as it did not have sufficient staff.
At most there were 30,000 Gestapo officers for 65,000,000 people.

Small scale opposition

Political:
- The Gestapo’s own reports say that KPD and SPD propaganda was having an effect from 1936 after tactics were changed.
Youth movements:
- Edelweiss Pirates and Swing groups
Religion:
- The Confessional Church broke away from the Reich Church.
- The Catholic Church openly criticised the Nazi Regime (1937 papal encyclical).
- Euthanasia programmes were kept secret due to concerns about public opinion.
The military: -Until the dismissal of over 100 generals in 1938 Hitler was very wary of the army.

1The Weimar Republic 1918-1933

1.1Establishment Of The Weimar Republic 1918-1924

1.1.1Post WW1

1.1.2Weimar Constitution

1.1.3Peace Settlement

1.1.4End of Topic Test - Germany Post WW1

1.1.5Economic Issues

1.1.6Economic Issues 2

1.1.7Social Issues

1.1.8End of Topic Test - Economic & Social Issues

1.1.9Extremist Threats

1.1.10Extremist Threats 2

1.1.11End of Topic Test - Extremist Threats

1.1.12Political Instability & The Invasion of the Ruhr

1.1.13Weimar Government by 1924

1.1.14End of Topic Test - Weimar Government by 1924

1.1.15A-A* (AO3/4) - Germany Post WW1

1.2The 'Golden Age' Of The Weimar Republic 1924-1928

1.2.1Economic Developments

1.2.2Industry & Agriculture

1.2.3End of Topic Test - Economic Developments

1.2.4Social Developments

1.2.5Social Developments 2

1.2.6End of Topic Test - Social Developments

1.2.7Political Parties

1.2.8Political Stability

1.2.9End of Topic Test - Weimar Politics

1.2.10Germany's International Position

1.2.11Germany's International Position 2

1.2.12End of Topic Test - International Position

1.2.13A-A* (AO3/4) - The Weimar 'Golden Age'

1.3The Collapse of Democracy 1928-1933

1.3.1The Impact Of The Depression

1.3.2Politics After The Depression

1.3.3The Appeal Of Extremism

1.3.4End of Topic Test - The Depression & Politics

1.3.5'Backstairs Intrigue'

1.3.6'Backstairs Intrigue' 2

1.3.7End of Topic Test - Backstairs Intrigue

1.3.8Political Developments

1.3.9The State by March 1933

1.3.10End of Topic Test - Political Developments

1.3.11A-A* (AO3/4) - The Collapse of Democracy

2Nazi Germany 1933-1945

2.1The Nazi Dictatorship 1933-1939

2.1.1Hitler's Consolidation Of Power

2.1.2The Terror State

2.1.3End of Topic Test - Consolidation of Power

2.1.4Opposition

2.1.5Propaganda

2.1.6A-A* (AO3/4) - Terror State & Propaganda

2.1.7End of Topic Test - Propaganda

2.1.8Economic Policies

2.1.9Economic Policies 2

2.1.10Impact Of Economic Policies

2.1.11Impact Of Economic Policies 2

2.1.12End of Topic Test - Economic Policies

2.1.13Social Policies

2.1.14Social Policies 2

2.1.15Volksgemeinschaft

2.1.16End of Topic Test - Social Policies

2.1.17A-A* (AO3/4) - Economic & Social Policies

2.2The Racial State 1933-1941

2.2.1The Radicalisation Of The State

2.2.2Anti-Semitism

2.2.3Development Of Anti-Semitic Policies

2.2.4Development Of Anti-Semitic Policies 2

2.2.5End of Topic Test - Anti-Semitism

2.2.6Treatment of the Jews in the Early Years of War

2.2.7Deportation & Anti-Semitism Evaluation

2.2.8End of Topic Test - Early Treatment of the Jews

2.2.9A-A* (AO3/4) - The Racial State

2.3The Impact Of War 1939-1945

2.3.1Home Front

2.3.2Impact On Society

2.3.3Impact On Society 2

2.3.4End of Topic Test - Impact of the War

2.3.5War Economy

2.3.6War Economy 2

2.3.7Policies Towards The Jews & Untermenschen

2.3.8A-A* (AO3/4) - Impact of the War

2.3.9End of Topic Test - War Economy

2.3.10Opposition

2.3.11Opposition 2

2.3.12Nazi State by 1945

2.3.13End of Topic Test - Opposition

2.3.14A-A* (AO3/4) - Opposition & The State in 1945

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