Political Stability

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President Hindenburg

Hindenburg was the president of Germany from 1925 to 1934.

Hindenburg's election

Friedrich Ebert died in 1925. Presidents were directly elected, but the first round of votes was inconclusive.
Right wing political parties regrouped and supported a new candidate, general Paul von Hindenburg.
Rather than unite with other left-wing parties, the communists put up their own candidate, Thaelman, who got 6% of the vote. Hindenburg won by 3%.

Hindenburg's political views

Hindenburg was a monarchist, not a Republican, and was not committed to democracy. He attracted political groups who wanted an authoritarian system.

Hindenburg's use of article 48

Hindenburg himself however, took his oath to uphold the Constitution seriously and did nothing unconstitutional. He used article 48, but so did Ebert.
Hindenburg only intervened over the expropriation of princes’ land. He said calls for a referendum on the issue unconstitutional. Chancellor Luther agreed.

Elections and attitudes to the Weimar Republic

Despite the decline in political violence, politics in the Weimar Republic was still unstable. This is demonstrated by the volatility in elections and the number of coalition governments.

National elections 1924-1933

There were elections in May 1924, December 1924, May 1928, September 1930, July 1932, November 1932 and March 1933.
In the second half of the 1920s was a growth in support of pro-Weimar Republic parties. In May 1928 72.8% of votes were for pro-Weimar parties.
The DNVP became pro-Weimar in the late 1920s.
Between May 1924 and March 1933 there were 10 new coalition governments.

Attitudes of the elite

Peukert (1993) argues that there was a decline in the liberalism in the late 1920s. The DDP lost ground. So too however, did anti-Weimar parties.
The elites continued to resent Weimar. Industrialists resented the cost of the welfare state, landed aristocracy, especially the Junkers, resented it’s loss of influence.
The army remained run by generals who desired a more authoritarian government. Many judges and civil servants looked back wistfully to imperial Germany.

Opinion formers

Bookbinder (1996) sees a lack of support for the Weimar Republic among opinion formers, such as teachers, newspaper editors and the clergy.
Bookbinder says that the late 1920s was when ‘real progress towards the creation of the Republicans could have been made’ as extremists had lost their popularity.
Bookbinder blames a lack of inspiration from political leaders and insufficient encouragement for democracy among opinion formers such as teachers.

Attitudes of the middle class

Smaller industrialists and businessmen, tended to be socially conservative. So were many middle-class professionals such as doctors teachers and lawyers.
Middle-class professionals did not benefit from rising real wages in industry. Nor did they benefit from the welfare state. They often felt left behind by the Republic.

Attitudes of the working class

About 40% of the electorate were working class, both urban proletariat and agricultural labourers.
The urban proletariat was often organised into trade unions that would fight for their interests. They tended to vote SPD or KPD.
Agricultural labourers did not tend to vote SPD or KPD.
Other voters voted according to their faith, or possibly for a regional or narrow interest party.

The Extent of Political Stability

Despite the term 'golden age', we should be sceptical of the political stability in the Weimar Republic.

A stable democracy

There was considerably less violence and insurrections between 1924 and 1929 in comparison to 1919 to 1923.
There was growing support for moderate parties, as shown in the electoral statistics for parties such as the SPD.
There was a decline in political extremism, as shown in the need for parties such as the DNVP changing their political strategy.

An unstable democracy

Coalitions were frequent because politicians were constantly bargaining to stay in power, thus discrediting parliamentary government.
There was a disconnect between voters and representatives in the Reichstag. Voters voted for a party list, the party decided who would represent them.
There was a growth of small, narrow, sectional interested parties. Only 60,000 votes were needed for a political party to get a deputy into the Reichstag.

1The Weimar Republic 1918-1933

1.1Establishment Of The Weimar Republic 1918-1924

1.1.1Post WW1

1.1.2Weimar Constitution

1.1.3Peace Settlement

1.1.4End of Topic Test - Germany Post WW1

1.1.5Economic Issues

1.1.6Economic Issues 2

1.1.7Social Issues

1.1.8End of Topic Test - Economic & Social Issues

1.1.9Extremist Threats

1.1.10Extremist Threats 2

1.1.11End of Topic Test - Extremist Threats

1.1.12Political Instability & The Invasion of the Ruhr

1.1.13Weimar Government by 1924

1.1.14End of Topic Test - Weimar Government by 1924

1.1.15A-A* (AO3/4) - Germany Post WW1

1.2The 'Golden Age' Of The Weimar Republic 1924-1928

1.2.1Economic Developments

1.2.2Industry & Agriculture

1.2.3End of Topic Test - Economic Developments

1.2.4Social Developments

1.2.5Social Developments 2

1.2.6End of Topic Test - Social Developments

1.2.7Political Parties

1.2.8Political Stability

1.2.9End of Topic Test - Weimar Politics

1.2.10Germany's International Position

1.2.11Germany's International Position 2

1.2.12End of Topic Test - International Position

1.2.13A-A* (AO3/4) - The Weimar 'Golden Age'

1.3The Collapse of Democracy 1928-1933

1.3.1The Impact Of The Depression

1.3.2Politics After The Depression

1.3.3The Appeal Of Extremism

1.3.4End of Topic Test - The Depression & Politics

1.3.5'Backstairs Intrigue'

1.3.6'Backstairs Intrigue' 2

1.3.7End of Topic Test - Backstairs Intrigue

1.3.8Political Developments

1.3.9The State by March 1933

1.3.10End of Topic Test - Political Developments

1.3.11A-A* (AO3/4) - The Collapse of Democracy

2Nazi Germany 1933-1945

2.1The Nazi Dictatorship 1933-1939

2.1.1Hitler's Consolidation Of Power

2.1.2The Terror State

2.1.3End of Topic Test - Consolidation of Power

2.1.4Opposition

2.1.5Propaganda

2.1.6A-A* (AO3/4) - Terror State & Propaganda

2.1.7End of Topic Test - Propaganda

2.1.8Economic Policies

2.1.9Economic Policies 2

2.1.10Impact Of Economic Policies

2.1.11Impact Of Economic Policies 2

2.1.12End of Topic Test - Economic Policies

2.1.13Social Policies

2.1.14Social Policies 2

2.1.15Volksgemeinschaft

2.1.16End of Topic Test - Social Policies

2.1.17A-A* (AO3/4) - Economic & Social Policies

2.2The Racial State 1933-1941

2.2.1The Radicalisation Of The State

2.2.2Anti-Semitism

2.2.3Development Of Anti-Semitic Policies

2.2.4Development Of Anti-Semitic Policies 2

2.2.5End of Topic Test - Anti-Semitism

2.2.6Treatment of the Jews in the Early Years of War

2.2.7Deportation & Anti-Semitism Evaluation

2.2.8End of Topic Test - Early Treatment of the Jews

2.2.9A-A* (AO3/4) - The Racial State

2.3The Impact Of War 1939-1945

2.3.1Home Front

2.3.2Impact On Society

2.3.3Impact On Society 2

2.3.4End of Topic Test - Impact of the War

2.3.5War Economy

2.3.6War Economy 2

2.3.7Policies Towards The Jews & Untermenschen

2.3.8A-A* (AO3/4) - Impact of the War

2.3.9End of Topic Test - War Economy

2.3.10Opposition

2.3.11Opposition 2

2.3.12Nazi State by 1945

2.3.13End of Topic Test - Opposition

2.3.14A-A* (AO3/4) - Opposition & The State in 1945

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