Opposition & Dissent in Nazi Germany, 1933-1945

Opposition to the Nazi Regime Between 1933 and 1939

There was opposition to the Nazi regime, revealed in studies of local archives as well as from oral history projects. Furthermore, opposition came in many forms and there were also varying degrees of compliance with the government.

Protestant opposition

The Confessional Church broke away from the Nazi Church.
Martin Niemöller and Dietrich Bonhöffer were members of the Confessional Church arrested for criticising the Nazi regime. Bonhöffer taught trainee ministers to resist Nazism and condemned the Nuremberg laws.

Catholic opposition

Catholic bishop von Galen criticised the regime. He was seen as too popular to be punished.
In 1937, the Pope publicly criticised the Nazi government for breaking the concordat, harassing priests and its idolatry of the German state and race.
The Catholic Church spoke out against key Nazi policies e.g. forced sterilisation.

Political opposition

The SPD and KPD operated underground. The SPD in Exile (SOPADE) had groups in industrial towns distributing leaflets.
The Düsseldorf Gestapo reported from 1936. The KPD and SPD used word of mouth plus setting up cells in factories, sports clubs etc. to encourage opposition.
A 1937 Gestapo report says such ‘propaganda’ was having some success.
The Kreisau Circle was a small group of conservative, monarchists formed in 1933 from army officers and aristocrats who opposed to Hitler.

Everyday opposition

The regime relied quite heavily on denunciation. Local studies show 50-80% of investigations were as a result of denunciation.
However, many denunciations were on spurious, personal grounds, based on grudges or jealousies rather than political accusations.
A random sample from the Düsseldorf Gestapo shows a decline in recorded dissident behaviour after 1937.
Humour (e.g. making jokes about Hitler) was another important means of opposition.

Historical assessment

Historian Hiden (1996) argues that ‘the persecution of hundreds of thousands of Germans [illustrates] that dissent and nonconformity must have been widespread.’
Peukert (1989) argues that ‘active resistance was only a minority affair…[it] mobilised tens of thousands of people…but remained decentralised…and…ineffectual.’
Hillenbrand (1994) argues that ‘many people found in the telling of such jokes only means to protest against the police state in which they live.’

Historical assessment of German churches

Geary (1993): Church leaders shied away from conflict.
Noakes and Pridham (1984): The Church was a major obstacle to Gleichschaltung.
Housden (1996): Church opposition was on an issue by issue basis.
Wilt (1994): Its timid response led to their own decline in influence.

Historical assessment of other Churches

Churches in occupied European territories also generally failed to speak out against the crimes that the Nazis were committing.
Paul Hanebrink (2000) explores how the Christian Churches of Hungary reacted to emigration and extermination policies. He concludes that while there were lots of religious individuals who helped people facing persecution, these people were exceptional.
- The church as an institution failed to use its 'public moral authority' to question what was happening.

1Political & Governmental Change, 1918-1989

1.1Creation & Collapse of Weimar, 1918-1932

1.1.1Creation of a Republic

1.1.2Strengths & Weaknesses of Weimar Constitution

1.1.3Overcoming Challenges to the Constitution

1.1.4The Great Depression

1.1.5The Collapse of Democracy

1.1.6The Collapse of Democracy 2

1.1.7Hitler Becomes Chancellor

1.2Nazi Dictatorship, 1933-1945

1.2.1Establishing a Dictatorship

1.2.2Consolidating Power

1.2.3Nature of Government

1.2.4Government in Wartime

1.2.5Top Grade AO2/3 - Political & Governmental Change

1.3Return to Democratic Government, 1945-1989

1.3.1Creation of the FRG, 1945-1949

1.3.2Consolidation Under Adenauer

1.3.3Consolidation Under Erhard

1.3.4Maintaining Stability Under Brandt

1.3.5Maintaining Stability Under Schmidt

1.3.6Maintaining Stability Under Kohl

1.3.7Top Grade AO2/3 - Return to Democratic Government

2Opposition, Control & Consent 1918-1989

2.1Opposition to Government, 1918-1989

2.1.1Impact of Versailles

2.1.2Political Extremism & Crises, 1918-1932

2.1.3Opposition & Dissent in Nazi Germany, 1933-1945

2.1.4Political Dissent from the Left, 1949-1989

2.1.5Political Dissent from the Right, 1949-1989

2.1.6Top Grade AO2/3 - Opposition to Government 1918-89

2.2Controlling the People, 1918-1989

2.2.1Attempts to Control Extremism

2.2.2Repression, 1933-1945

2.2.3Censorship & Propaganda, 1933-1945

2.2.4De-Nazification Policies of Western Allies, 1945

2.2.5Constitutional & Legal Response to Extremism, 1949

2.3Popular Support, 1918-1989

2.3.1The Nature of Support for the Weimar Government

2.3.2Support for the Nazi Regime

2.3.3The Nature of Support for Democracy, 1945-1989

2.3.4Top Grade AO2/3 - Controlling the People

3Economic Developments & Policies, 1918-1989

3.1Reacting to Economic Challenges, 1918-1932

3.1.1Economic Crises & Government Response, 1918-1923

3.1.2Economic Loans, 1924-1928

3.1.3Policies for Recovery, 1924-1929

3.1.4The Great Depression

3.1.5Change in Living Standards

3.1.6Top Grade AO2/3 - Reacting to Economic Challenges

3.2Controlling the Economy, 1933-1945

3.2.1Attempting Economic Recovery

3.2.2Creating a Command Economy

3.2.3Change in Living Standards

3.2.4Impact of War

3.2.5Impact of War 2

3.2.6Top Grade AO2/3 - Controlling the Economy

3.3Creating the Social Market Economy, 1945-1989

3.3.1Economic Recovery, 1945-1955

3.3.2The Economic Miracle, 1955-1966

3.3.3Surviving the Recession, 1960-1969

3.3.4The Oil Crisis

3.3.5Integration into the European Economy

3.3.6Change in Living Standards

3.3.7Top Grade AO2/3 - Creating Social Market Economy

4Aspects of Life, 1918-1989

4.1Attitudes Towards Women, 1918-1989

4.1.1Role & Status of Women in the Weimar Republic

4.1.2Impact of Kinder, Küche, Kirche

4.1.3Impact of WW2 on Women

4.1.4Role & Status of Women in the FRG

4.1.5Top Grade AO2/3 - Attitudes Towards Women

4.2Education & Cultural Developments, 1918-1989

4.2.1Education in Weimar

4.2.2Cultural Experimentation in Weimar

4.2.3Education Under the Nazis

4.2.4Nazi Culture

4.2.5Education in the FRG

4.2.6Generational Conflict

4.2.7Top Grade AO2/3 - Education & Cultural Development

4.3Position of Ethnic Minorities, 19189-1989

4.3.1Ethnic Minorities in the Weimar Republic

4.3.2Nazi Racial Policies, 1933-1939

4.3.3Nazi Racial Policies During the War

4.3.4Ethnic Minorities in the FRG

4.3.5Top Grade AO2/3 - Position of Ethnic Minorities

5Historical Interpretations

5.1Influence of German History

5.1.1Influence of German History

5.2Hitler & Foreign Policy

5.2.1Hitler & Foreign Policy

5.3Contribution of Other Nations to WW2

5.3.1Weak Nations

5.3.2Appeasement

5.3.3The Rise of Fascism

5.4Reasons for Invading Poland

5.4.1Reasons for Invading Poland

5.4.2Top Grade AO2/3 - Historical Interpretation

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