Overcoming Challenges to the Constitution

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President Hindenburg

Hindenburg was the president of Germany from 1925 to 1934.

Hindenburg's election

Friedrich Ebert died in 1925. Presidents were directly elected, but the first round of votes was inconclusive.
Right wing political parties regrouped and supported a new candidate, general Paul von Hindenburg.
Rather than unite with other left-wing parties, the communists put up their own candidate, Thaelman, who got 6% of the vote. Hindenburg won by 3%.

Hindenburg's political views

Hindenburg was a monarchist, not a Republican, and was not committed to democracy. He attracted political groups who wanted an authoritarian system.

Hindenburg's use of article 48

Hindenburg himself however, took his oath to uphold the Constitution seriously and did nothing unconstitutional. He used article 48, but so did Ebert.
Hindenburg only intervened over the expropriation of princes’ land. He said calls for a referendum on the issue unconstitutional. Chancellor Luther agreed.

Elections and attitudes to the Weimar Republic

Despite the decline in political violence, politics in the Weimar Republic was still unstable. This is demonstrated by the volatility in elections and the number of coalition governments.

National elections 1924-1933

There were elections in May 1924, December 1924, May 1928, September 1930, July 1932, November 1932 and March 1933.
In the second half of the 1920s was a growth in support of pro-Weimar Republic parties. In May 1928 72.8% of votes well for pro-Weimar parties.
The DNVP became pro-Weimar in the late 1920s.
Between May 1924 and March 1933 there were 10 new coalition governments.

Attitudes of the elite

Peukert (1993) argues that there was a decline in the liberalism in the late 1920s. The DDP lost ground. So too however, did anti-Weimar parties.
The elites continued to resent Weimar. Industrialists resented the cost of the welfare state, landed aristocracy, especially the Junkers, it’s loss of influence.
Army generals desired a more authoritarian government. Many judges and civil servants looked back wistfully to imperial Germany.

Opinion formers

The historian Bookbinder (1996) argues that there was a lack of support for the Weimar Republic among "opinion formers" in society. These are people with influence such as teachers, newspaper editors and the clergy.
Bookbinder says that the late 1920s was when ‘real progress towards the creation of the Republicans could have been made’ as extremists had lost their popularity.
Bookbinder blames a lack of inspiration from political leaders and insufficient encouragement for democracy among influential people for the failure of the Weimar Republic.

Attitudes of the middle class

Smaller industrialists and businessmen, tended to be socially conservative. So were many middle-class professionals such as doctors teachers and lawyers.
Middle-class professionals did not benefit from rising real wages in industry. Nor did they benefit from the welfare state. They often felt left behind by the Republic.

Attitudes of the working class

About 40% of the electorate were working class, both urban proletariat and agricultural labourers.
The urban proletariat was often organised into trade unions that would fight for their interests. They tended to vote SPD or KPD.
Agricultural labourers did not tend to vote SPD or KPD.
Other voters voted according to their faith, or possibly for a regional or narrow interest party.

The Extent of Political Stability

Despite the term 'golden age', we should be sceptical of the political stability in the Weimar Republic.

A stable democracy

There was considerably less violence and insurrections between 1924 and 1929 in comparison to 1919 to 1923.
There was growing support for moderate parties, as shown in the electoral statistics for parties such as the SPD.
There was a decline in political extremism, as shown in the need for parties such as the DNVP changing their political strategy.

An unstable democracy

Coalitions were frequent because politicians were constantly bargaining to stay in power, thus discrediting parliamentary government.
There was a disconnect between voters and representatives in the Reichstag. Voters voted for a party list, the party decided who would represent them.
There was a growth of small, narrow, sectional interested parties. Only 60,000 votes were needed for a political party to get a deputy into the Reichstag.

1Political & Governmental Change, 1918-1989

1.1Creation & Collapse of Weimar, 1918-1932

1.1.1Creation of a Republic

1.1.2Strengths & Weaknesses of Weimar Constitution

1.1.3Overcoming Challenges to the Constitution

1.1.4The Great Depression

1.1.5The Collapse of Democracy

1.1.6The Collapse of Democracy 2

1.1.7Hitler Becomes Chancellor

1.2Nazi Dictatorship, 1933-1945

1.2.1Establishing a Dictatorship

1.2.2Consolidating Power

1.2.3Nature of Government

1.2.4Government in Wartime

1.2.5Top Grade AO2/3 - Political & Governmental Change

1.3Return to Democratic Government, 1945-1989

1.3.1Creation of the FRG, 1945-1949

1.3.2Consolidation Under Adenauer

1.3.3Consolidation Under Erhard

1.3.4Maintaining Stability Under Brandt

1.3.5Maintaining Stability Under Schmidt

1.3.6Maintaining Stability Under Kohl

1.3.7Top Grade AO2/3 - Return to Democratic Government

2Opposition, Control & Consent 1918-1989

2.1Opposition to Government, 1918-1989

2.1.1Impact of Versailles

2.1.2Political Extremism & Crises, 1918-1932

2.1.3Opposition & Dissent in Nazi Germany, 1933-1945

2.1.4Political Dissent from the Left, 1949-1989

2.1.5Political Dissent from the Right, 1949-1989

2.1.6Top Grade AO2/3 - Opposition to Government 1918-89

2.2Controlling the People, 1918-1989

2.2.1Attempts to Control Extremism

2.2.2Repression, 1933-1945

2.2.3Censorship & Propaganda, 1933-1945

2.2.4De-Nazification Policies of Western Allies, 1945

2.2.5Constitutional & Legal Response to Extremism, 1949

2.3Popular Support, 1918-1989

2.3.1The Nature of Support for the Weimar Government

2.3.2Support for the Nazi Regime

2.3.3The Nature of Support for Democracy, 1945-1989

2.3.4Top Grade AO2/3 - Controlling the People

3Economic Developments & Policies, 1918-1989

3.1Reacting to Economic Challenges, 1918-1932

3.1.1Economic Crises & Government Response, 1918-1923

3.1.2Economic Loans, 1924-1928

3.1.3Policies for Recovery, 1924-1929

3.1.4The Great Depression

3.1.5Change in Living Standards

3.1.6Top Grade AO2/3 - Reacting to Economic Challenges

3.2Controlling the Economy, 1933-1945

3.2.1Attempting Economic Recovery

3.2.2Creating a Command Economy

3.2.3Change in Living Standards

3.2.4Impact of War

3.2.5Impact of War 2

3.2.6Top Grade AO2/3 - Controlling the Economy

3.3Creating the Social Market Economy, 1945-1989

3.3.1Economic Recovery, 1945-1955

3.3.2The Economic Miracle, 1955-1966

3.3.3Surviving the Recession, 1960-1969

3.3.4The Oil Crisis

3.3.5Integration into the European Economy

3.3.6Change in Living Standards

3.3.7Top Grade AO2/3 - Creating Social Market Economy

4Aspects of Life, 1918-1989

4.1Attitudes Towards Women, 1918-1989

4.1.1Role & Status of Women in the Weimar Republic

4.1.2Impact of Kinder, Küche, Kirche

4.1.3Impact of WW2 on Women

4.1.4Role & Status of Women in the FRG

4.1.5Top Grade AO2/3 - Attitudes Towards Women

4.2Education & Cultural Developments, 1918-1989

4.2.1Education in Weimar

4.2.2Cultural Experimentation in Weimar

4.2.3Education Under the Nazis

4.2.4Nazi Culture

4.2.5Education in the FRG

4.2.6Generational Conflict

4.2.7Top Grade AO2/3 - Education & Cultural Development

4.3Position of Ethnic Minorities, 19189-1989

4.3.1Ethnic Minorities in the Weimar Republic

4.3.2Nazi Racial Policies, 1933-1939

4.3.3Nazi Racial Policies During the War

4.3.4Ethnic Minorities in the FRG

4.3.5Top Grade AO2/3 - Position of Ethnic Minorities

5Historical Interpretations

5.1Influence of German History

5.1.1Influence of German History

5.2Hitler & Foreign Policy

5.2.1Hitler & Foreign Policy

5.3Contribution of Other Nations to WW2

5.3.1Weak Nations

5.3.2Appeasement

5.3.3The Rise of Fascism

5.4Reasons for Invading Poland

5.4.1Reasons for Invading Poland

5.4.2Top Grade AO2/3 - Historical Interpretation

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