Phonemes, Vocal Tract & Articulation

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Phonology - Phonemes and the Vocal Tract

Phonology is the study of sounds. You will also encounter phonetics, and this is the study of how sounds are produced.

Spoken acquisition

Acquisition is how we gain and acquire language. We can then consider what types and sounds of language been acquired and how particular words are spoken.

Phonemes

Despite there being 26 letters in the English alphabet, there are 44 phonemes to describe sounds.
You will be given a list of phonemes in your exam, so you do not have to remember them all.
All 44 phonemes will be shown on the following slides...

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The vocal tract

The system by which sounds are produced is called ‘the vocal tract’.

Voiced and unvoiced phonemes

We can describe a phoneme as being voiced or voiceless/unvoiced.
The difference between these two is to do with the vocal folds. When the vocal folds are vibrating, the sound is voiced.
You can test this for yourself by pressing your fingers to your throat and feeling the difference between the /p/ sound and the /b/ sound. The /b/ sound is voiced, whereas the /p/ sound is unvoiced.

Phonology - The Place of Articulation

You need to be able to say where sounds are produced. Parts of the vocal tract which help to produce sounds are called articulators. Each articulator (or combination of articulators) produces a different type of sound:

Bilabial sounds

These are produced by using (bi) both (labials) lips. These are sounds like /m/ in words like ‘monkey’_.

Labiodental sounds

These involve using both the teeth and the lip(s). These are sounds like /f/ in words like ‘five’.

Dental sounds

These are sounds produced using the teeth. In British Standard English, there are only 2 dental sounds you need to know – the theta (/θ/) sound in words like ‘through’ and the thorn (/ð/) sound in words like ‘this’.

Alveolar sounds

These are produced by the tongue being pressed against the alveolar ridge. These are sounds like /t/ in ‘teeth’.

Palato-alveolar sounds

This group is sometimes called post-alveolar and grouped into palatal.
These are produced when the tongue is pressed past the alveolar ridge, but not quite at the hard palate. These are sounds like /ʃ/ in words like ‘shoe’.

Palatal sounds

These are produced when the tongue is against the hard palate.
There is only one phoneme you need to know for your exam, and that is the yod (/j/). You may recall the yod from accent and dialect.

Velar sounds

These are sounds produced by the tongue touching the velum (soft palate). These are sounds like /g/ in ‘green’.

Glottal sounds

These are sounds produced in the glottis.
There are two you need to know: the /h/ phoneme in words like ‘house’ and the glottal stop (the missing out of the /t/ sound in words) in words like ‘butter’ making it sound like ‘bu-er’.

Phonology - The Manner of Articulation

When we are talking about the manner in which something is produced, we are referring to the way in which air is forced to behave in the production of sound. The manners you need to know are:

Plosives

These are quick release of built-up air. For example, the /g/ sound in ‘green’.

Fricatives

Fricatives are pushes of air. For example, the /f/ sound in ‘five’.

Affricates

Affricates start as plosives and end as fricatives. For example, the /tʃ/ in words like ‘church’.

Nasals

Nasals are sounds which release air through the nose and not through the mouth. For example, the /n/ in words like ‘night’.

Lateral approximant

Lateral approximant is produced by air being forced between the sides of the tongue and the tongue being pressed against the alveolar ridge.
There are 2 lateral approximant consonant sounds:
- Clear /l/ (before a vowel), in 'law' and 'leaf'.
- Dark /ɫ/ (at the end or before a consonant), in 'all' and 'feel'.

Approximant

Approximant is when articulators are brought close together but are not fully touching. For example, the lips don’t fully touch when making the /w/ sound in words like ‘word’.

1Language Levels

1.1Assessment Objectives

1.1.1Assessment Objectives

1.2Lexis

1.2.1Introduction

1.2.2Common, Proper, Abstract & Concrete Nouns

1.2.3Collective Nouns

1.2.4Adjectives

1.2.5Main, Auxiliary & Copular Verbs

1.2.6Dynamic & Stative Verbs

1.2.7Transitive, Intransitive, Active & Passive Verbs

1.2.8Mood of Verbs

1.2.9Adverbs

1.2.10Personal, Possessive & Reflexive Pronouns

1.2.11Relative & Demonstrative Pronouns

1.2.12Determiners

1.2.13Conjunctions

1.2.14Synonyms, Antonyms & Phonological Features

1.2.15End of Topic Test - Lexis

1.3Grammar

1.3.1Morphology

1.3.2Clauses

1.3.3Phrases

1.3.4Present Tense

1.3.5Past Tense

1.3.6Future Tense

1.3.7End of Topic Test - Grammar

1.4Semantics & Pragmatics

1.4.1Semantics

1.4.2Pragmatics

1.5Discourse Structure, Graphology & Orthography

1.5.1Discourse Structure

1.5.2Graphology & Orthography

1.5.3End of Topic Test - Semantics, Graphology etc.

2Language, The Individual & Society

2.1Children’s Language Development

2.1.1The Exam

2.1.2Phonemes, Vocal Tract & Articulation

2.1.3Writing About Phonemes

2.1.4Phonological Simplification

2.1.5A Child's First Year & Consonant Acquisition

2.1.6Beginning Stages of Language

2.1.7Lexical Development

2.1.8Stages of Development

2.1.9End of Topic Test - Child Language Development

2.2Children's Language Development - Theories

2.2.1Behaviourism

2.2.2Interactionism

2.2.3Challenging Interactionism

2.2.4Nativism

2.2.5Nativism - Exam Answer

2.2.6Cognitivism

2.2.7Social Constructionism

2.2.8Writing About Spoken Acquisition

2.2.9End of Topic Test - Development Theories

2.3Literacy Development: Reading

2.3.1Introduction

2.3.2Phonics vs Whole Word

2.3.3Debates in Reading

2.3.4Modelling Reading Acquisition

2.3.5Other Reading Theories

2.3.6End of Topic Test - Reading

2.4Literacy Development: Writing

2.4.1Orthography

2.4.2Kroll's Theory

2.4.3Barclay's Theory

2.4.4Creativity vs Accuracy

2.4.5Other Writing Theories

2.4.6The Exam

2.4.7End of Topic Test - Writing

3Language Diversity & Change

3.1The Importance of Gendered Language

3.1.1Writing About Gender

3.1.2Dominance Theory

3.1.3Interruptions - Zimmerman & West

3.1.4Deficit Theory

3.1.5Difference Model

3.1.6Difference Model - Men

3.1.7Diversity Model

3.1.8End of Topic Test - Gendered Language

3.2Social Groups

3.2.1Writing About Social Groups

3.2.2Social Class

3.2.3Social Class 2

3.2.4Age

3.2.5Age - Teen Speak

3.2.6Milroy’s Belfast Study

3.2.7Labov’s Martha’s Vineyard Study

3.2.8End of Topic Test - Social Groups

3.3Occupational Groups

3.3.1Writing About Occupational Groups

3.3.2Jargon

3.3.3Conversations

3.3.4Hierarchy & Power

3.3.5End of Topic Test - Occupational Groups

3.4Accents & Dialects

3.4.1Writing About Accent & Dialect

3.4.2Introduction to Accents & Dialects

3.4.3Accents - Matched Guide Experiment

3.4.4Accents - Received Pronunciation & Brummie

3.4.5Dialects - Dialectal Variations

3.4.6Accent & Dialect Case Study - London

3.4.7End of Topic Test - Accents & Dialects

3.5Language Change

3.5.1Writing About Language Change

3.5.2Modelling Change

3.5.3Modelling Change 2

3.5.4Lexical Change

3.5.5Semantic Change

3.5.6End of Topic Test - Language Change

3.6History of English

3.6.1Old English

3.6.2Old English 2

3.6.3Middle English

3.6.4Middle English 2

3.6.5Early Modern English

3.6.6Late Modern English

3.6.7Present Day English

3.6.8Global English

3.6.9American English

3.6.10Modelling Global English

3.6.11End of Topic Test - History of English

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