The Berlin Wall 1

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The Refugee Problem in Berlin

In the 1950s, Berlin was still divided into East and West Berlin. Germany was divided into East and West Germany.

Difference in living standards in East and West Germany

The living conditions in West Berlin were better than the living conditions in East Berlin.
Wages in West Berlin were higher than wages in East Berlin.
The Hans Böckler Foundation has found that wages in areas that were in West Germany were still 17% higher than in East Germany in 2018.
The difference was even greater in the 1950s.

Refugees and workers moving to West Germany

Many East Germans were aware that living conditions were better and wages higher in West Berlin.
Because West Berlin was a US-controlled haven in East Germany, people could move from East Berlin to West Berlin and then move to West Germany.
Between 1952 and 1961, it is estimated that 3.5 million East Germans migrated to West Germany.
This was a propaganda defeat for the Soviet - people were leaving their territory and moving to American-controlled territory.
It also caused a problem for East Germany. Skilled workers tended to leave East Germany, so East Germany's output, productivity and wealth didn't rise as much. There was a shortage of skilled labour.

The Berlin Ultimatum, November 1958

In November 1958, Khrushchev issued a memorandum (written document), claiming that Berlin should be absorbed into East Germany.
Khrushchev threatened that all American, British and French troops should leave Berlin within 6 months.

Response to the ultimatum: summits

The ultimatum led to a series of summit meetings between the leaders of the great powers.
- The first summit happened in Geneva and the second summit happened in September 1959 at Camp David. The Camp David summit was led by the US President, Dwight Eisenhower, and Krushchev.
The U2 Spy Plane Crisis undermined all progress at the 1960 Paris Summit. Talks broke down after the USSR shot down an American 'U2' spy plane in Russian airspace.

The Berlin Wall: Cold War Tensions and Crises

The Berlin Wall symbolized Cold War conflict, involving missile threats, U2 spy plane events, and the 1961 Kennedy-Khrushchev Vienna Summit.

What was the Berlin Wall?

The Berlin Wall divided East and West Berlin from 1961 to 1989.
The East German government built the Wall to stop people fleeing to West Berlin.
The Wall became a symbol of the Cold War division between the Soviet East and Western powers.

ICBMs

The Soviet Union developed Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) to deliver nuclear warheads across continents.
The US and USSR both used ICBMs to threaten each other during the Cold War.
- The presence of ICBMs increased tensions during the Berlin Wall crisis as both sides prepared for conflict.

The U2 Incident

The United States used U2 spy planes to gather intelligence over the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe.
In 1960, the Soviets shot down a U2 plane piloted by Francis Gary Powers.
- The U2 incident embarrassed the US and heightened mistrust during Berlin Wall tensions.

The Vienna Summit 1961

President John F. Kennedy met Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev in Vienna in June 1961.
Khrushchev demanded that West Berlin become a neutral city or be controlled by East Germany.
Kennedy refused, leading to increased tensions and Khrushchev ordering the Berlin Wall's construction.

Cold War relations

The Berlin Wall showed the failure of peaceful coexistence between East and West.
The Wall caused tension but prevented direct military conflict in Berlin.
The Berlin Wall stayed until 1989, symbolizing Cold War divisions and eventual change.

The Wall's effect on families

The Berlin Wall separated many families, cutting off communication and travel.
East Germans attempted dangerous escapes, with some killed trying to cross.
- The Wall showed the human cost of Cold War politics and Soviet control in East Germany.

1Was the Treaty of Versailles Fair?

1.1What were the Motives and Aims at Versailles?

1.1.1The Treaty of Versailles

1.1.2Roles of Wilson, Clemenceau & George

1.2Did the Victors Get Everything They Wanted?

1.2.1The Terms: Territory

1.2.2The Terms: Reparations

1.2.3The Terms: Armaments

1.2.4The Terms: War Guilt

1.2.5The League of Nations

1.2.6French Reaction

1.2.7American Reaction

1.2.8British Reaction

1.2.9Countries Left Out of the Treaty of Versailles

1.3What was the Impact on Germany up to 1923?

1.3.1German Reaction to the Treaty

1.3.2Germany’s Allies

1.3.3Economic Impacts: Ruhr & Hyperinflation

1.3.4Social Impacts of the Treaty in Germany

1.3.5Political Impacts of the Treaty on Germany

1.3.6Reducing Reparation: The Dawes Plan

1.4Could the Treaty be Justified at the Time?

1.4.1Positives & Negatives

1.4.2Contemporary Opinions About the Treaty

2Was the League of Nations a Success?

2.1How did Weaknesses in the League Lead to Failure?

2.1.1The League of Nations

2.1.2Structure of the League: Assembly & Council

2.1.3Structure of the League: Special Commissions

2.1.4Structure of the League: Permanent Court

2.1.5Structure of the League: Secretariat

2.1.6Financial Crisis in the World

2.2The League’s Success in Peacekeeping

2.2.1Successes: International Borders

2.2.2Successes: International Agreements

2.2.3Failures: Vilna (1920)

2.2.4Åland Islands 1920-21

2.2.5Failures: Corfu 1923

2.2.6Failures: Bulgaria 1925

2.3How Important was the League's Humanitarian Work?

2.3.1Refugees, Health, Slavery, Working Conditions 1

2.3.2Refugees, Health, Slavery, Working Conditions 2

2.4How did the Depression Impact the League?

2.4.1The Great Depression, 1929

2.4.2The Manchurian Crisis, 1931

2.4.3Invasion of Abyssinia, 1935

3How did Hitler's Foreign Policy Impact the War?

3.1What were the Long-Term Consequences of Versailles

3.1.1Long-Term Consequences of Versailles

3.2What were the Consequences of the League's Failure

3.2.1The Disarmament Conference

3.2.2Collapse of the League of Nations

3.2.3Tension in Europe in the 1930s

3.2.4WWII & Failure of the League of Nations

3.2.5Weak Nations

3.3Was the Policy of Appeasement Justified?

3.3.1The Spanish Civil War, 1936-39

3.3.2The Sudetenland

3.3.3Arguments for Appeasement

3.3.4Arguments Against Appeasement

3.3.5Reasons & Acts of Appeasement

3.3.6Impact of Appeasement

3.4How Important was the Nazi-Soviet Pact?

3.4.1The Nazi-Soviet Pact

3.4.2The Polish Crisis & the Outbreak of War

3.5Why did Britain & France Declare War on Germany?

3.5.1The Guarantee for Poland and the War

3.5.2Hitler’s Foreign Policy & Rearmament

3.5.3Hitler's Plan

3.5.4The Saar

3.5.5Remilitarisation of the Rhineland

3.5.6The Rome-Berlin Axis

3.5.7Germany & Italy in the Spanish War

3.5.8The Anti-Comintern Pact

3.5.9Anschluss with Austria

3.5.10The Munich Agreement

3.5.11The Crisis over Czechoslovakia

4Who was to Blame for the Cold War?

4.1Why did the US-Soviet Alliance Break Down?

4.1.1Cold War - Definition

4.1.2The Grand Alliance

4.1.3The Tehran Conference, 1943

4.1.4The 1945 Summit Conferences

4.1.5Early US-Soviet Relations

4.1.6The Breakdown of the US-Soviet Alliance

4.1.7US & Soviet Attitudes to Peace

4.2How did the USSR Gain Control of Easter Europe?

4.2.1The USSR & Eastern Europe

4.2.2Attitudes of Truman & Stalin

4.3How did the US React to Soviet Expansionism?

4.3.1The Beginning of the Cold War

4.3.2The Truman Doctrine & Marshall Plan

4.3.3East-West Boundaries

4.4What were the Consequences of the Berlin Blockade?

4.4.1Germany

4.4.2Bizonia

4.4.3Berlin Blockade

4.4.4FRG & GDR

4.5Who was More to Blame for Starting the Cold War?

4.5.1NATO

4.5.2Warsaw Pact

4.5.3The Responsibility for Cold War Tensions

4.5.4Blame on the USRR

4.5.5Blame on the US

4.5.6Sharing the Blame

5Did the US Contain the Spread of Communism?

5.1The US and Korea, 1950-53

5.1.1The US and Korea: Background to the Crisis

5.1.2The Korean War

5.1.3The Course of the Korean War

5.2The US and Cuba, 1959-62

5.2.1Build-Up to the Cuban Missile Crisis

5.2.2The Cuban Missile Crisis

5.2.3Consequence of the Cuban Missile Crisis

5.3The US and Vietnam, 1955-75

5.3.1French Rule in Vietnam

5.3.2President Eisenhower

5.3.3President Kennedy

5.3.4The Gulf of Tonkin Incident, 1964

5.3.5US Tactics

5.3.6Vietcong Tactics

5.3.7The Vietcong

5.3.8The My Lai Massacre, 1968

5.3.9Vietnamisation

5.3.10The Tet Offensive, 1968

5.3.11Attacks on Cambodia & Laos

5.3.12The Bombing of North Vietnam

5.3.13The Failure of Vietnamisation

5.3.14The Growth of Opposition

5.3.15The Draft System

5.3.16The Kent State University Shootings, 1970

5.3.17Political Opposition

5.3.18Reasons for Support 1

5.3.19Reasons for Support 2

5.3.20Political Support

5.3.21Peace Negotiations

5.3.22The Paris Peace Accords, 1973

5.3.23Economic & Human Costs 1

5.3.24Economic & Human Costs 2

5.3.25The Strengths of North Vietnam 1

5.3.26The Strengths of North Vietnam 2

5.3.27The Weaknesses of the US 1

5.3.28The Weaknesses of the US 2

5.3.29Opposition in the US

5.3.30Reasons Why USA Lost

6How was USSR's Control Over Eastern Europe?

6.1Opposition to Control in Hungary & Czechoslovakia

6.1.1Causes of Opposition

6.1.2The Hungarian Uprising & U2 crisis

6.1.3The U2 Crisis

6.1.4Czechoslovakia, 1968

6.1.5Reaction to Brezhnev

6.2Similarities Between Hungary & Czechoslovakia

6.2.1Hungary and Czechoslovakia 1

6.2.2Hungary & Czechoslovakia 2

6.3Why was the Berlin Wall Built?

6.3.1The Berlin Wall 1

6.3.2The Berlin Wall 2

6.4Solidarity in Poland & Soviet Influence

6.4.1Solidarity in Poland and Other Developments

6.5Gorbachev's Responsibility

6.5.1Reagan & Gorbachev

6.5.2Reagan and the ‘Second Cold War’

6.5.3The Collapse of Soviet Control

6.5.4The Collapse of the USSR

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