Gorbachev & Yeltsin's Responsibility

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Gorbachev's Responsibility for the Collapse of the USSR

In assessing Gorbachev's actions, it is clear he lost control.

Gorbachev's reforms

Gorbachev’s reforms changed the very nature of the Soviet Union by 1990.
A key way to frame Gorbachev’s reforms is through the idea of ‘new thinking’.
- Gorbachev introduced the terms ‘pluralism’ and ‘markets’ into the language of Soviet politics. He added the word ‘socialist’ in front of them to suggest a union between Communism and elements of the free market.
- ‘Perestroika’ meant ‘restructuring’. Gorbachev used the word to characterise his reforms.

Relaxing control

Gorbachev stated publicly that he would not use violence to hold together the Soviet Union or the Eastern Bloc countries.
Previous leaders had used violence frequently to deal with opposition. This approach weakened the Party’s grip on the country.
Instead, Gorbachev placed more of an emphasis on respecting the rights of individuals.
He did not want to repeat the terror Stalin had used, which had been revealed through the policy of glasnost.

Gorbachev's errors

Some people have argued that the fact that Gorbachev thought reform of the USSR was possible was enough to set the country on a collision course.
He had not realised that the Soviet people could still be tempted by ideas such as nationalism.
It was not possible to restructure industry and increase output simultaneously. As such, the policy of ‘uskorenie’ (acceleration) could never work because restructuring typically leads to lower output in the short term.

Economic and political reform

When economic and political reform were combined, this made the problem even worse.
Gorbachev constantly changed his approach and tried to introduce too many reforms too quickly.
He did not replace the Communist Party with a new power base, and this also fueled the collapse.

Gorbachev's tactics

Certain historians argue that it was Gorbachev’s tactics, and not his policies themselves, which caused the end of the Soviet Union.
Gorbachev was not able to win support from the Communist Party for his ideas. Internal resistance meant that his new ideas would never take hold in the country at large.
Gorbachev tried to introduce democracy but refused to stand for election himself to be President.

Comparison with China

Historians sometimes look to communist China in the same period to compare with Gorbachev’s failed reforms.
China embraced free market solutions more quickly and with less reservation. The Chinese economy kept growing during the reform years. Gorbachev’s reforms were slower, and the Communists lost authority because they could not show people that their reforms were effective in improving living standards. China did not allow any political freedom.

Yeltsin's Responsibility for the Collapse of the USSR

Gorbachev certainly played a role in the collapse of the Soviet Union. But certain historians have argued that Yeltsin’s role was more important.

Yeltsin's role

Yeltsin had initially supported Gorbachev. But, as an electable and popular politician himself, he wanted Gorbachev to go further.
Yeltsin was popular for addressing the corruption and privileges of the Communist Party in a public way. He was able to win 89% of the votes in Moscow in 1989.

Yeltsin's resignation

Yeltsin actually resigned from the Communist Party in July 1990. This led to a fall in the Communist Party’s popularity, but not in his own. General party membership dropped by three million people that year.
Yeltsin went as far as positioning himself as a direct rival to Gorbachev. He proposed a non-Communist government.

Yeltsin and nationalism

Unlike Gorbachev, Yeltsin was a supporter of nationalist movements. This was the case for both Russian nationalists and those in the other republics.
In 1990 Yeltsin went to a number of different republics around the USSR. He told the leaders of those regions to take a much sovereignty (power) from Moscow as they could.
When the republics declared independence, Yeltsin supported them.

Yeltsin's power

Yeltsin was able to develop a more powerful base of support by winning the election for the Russian presidency and the elections to the Russian parliament.
By contrast, Gorbachev had never faced an election. Gorbachev became increasingly illegitimate.
After the coup, Yeltsin banned the Communist Party and seized its wealth.
Yeltsin and the leaders of Ukraine and Belarus decided to form the CIS, in opposition to Gorbachev’s Union Treaty.

Historical Assessment of Gorbachev and Yeltsin

Historians disagree over Gorbachev and Yeltsin's responsibility for the collapse of the USSR.

Marsh's view of Gorbachev

‘The first real phase of the collapse began between March and December 1989, from the initial elections to the Congress of People’s Deputies to the collapse of Communist rule in Eastern Europe. By this time ‘perestroika’ had run into trouble... During the second phase of collapse, from January 1990 to August 1991, collapse of the system became an increasingly possible outcome of reform.’

Beissinger's view of Gorbachev

‘Gorbachev’s policy of glasnost and the political liberalisation that it produced were obviously the critical institutional conditions that allowed the collapse of communism to occur. Without glasnost, the forces that most directly brought about the collapse could never have materialised or been able to act.’

Suny's view of Gorbachev

'The death of the Soviet Union represented a failure of Gorbachev’s triple revolution. The system fell because the leadership tried simultaneously to dismantle the old practices of the command economy and Communist Party dominance.’

Brown's view of Yeltsin

'Although Gorbachev’s reforms had sown the seeds of destruction, the most immediate causes of the breakup were, however, Yeltsin’s playing of the Russian nationalist card against the Union.’

Breslauer's view of Yeltsin

‘Yeltsin polarized politics during these last two to three years of Gorbachev’s leadership. No matter what Gorbachev proposed in domestic policy, Yeltsin criticized the Party leader for conservatism and half-measures. He supported centrifugal forces in the union republics at a time when Gorbachev was trying to contain.’

1Communist Government in the USSR, 1917-85

1.1Establishing Communist Party Control, 1917-24

1.1.1The Creation of a One-Party State

1.1.2Government under Lenin

1.1.3Centralisation of Power

1.1.4End of Topic Test - Establishing Control

1.1.5A-A* (AO3/4) - Establishing Control

1.2Stalin in Power, 1928-53

1.2.1The Elimination of Opponents

1.2.2The Purges of the 1930s

1.2.3End of Topic Test - The Elimination of Opponents

1.2.4Stalin's Power Over the Communist Party

1.2.5Stalin's Power During & After the Communist Party

1.2.6End of Topic Test - Power Over the Communist Party

1.2.7A-A* (AO3/4) - Stalin in Power

1.3Government, 1953-85

1.3.1Changes in Leaders' Control of the State

1.3.2Khrushchev's Attempts to Reform Government

1.3.3End of Topic Test - Government 1953-85

1.3.4Stability & Stagnation, 1964-85

1.3.5End of Topic Test - Stability & Stagnation

1.3.6A-A* (AO3/4) - Government 1953 - 85

2Industrial & Agricultural Changes

2.1Towards a Command Economy

2.1.1Nationalisation of Industry, Communism & the NEP

2.1.2End of Topic Test - Towards a Command Economy

2.2Industry & Agriculture in the Stalin Era

2.2.1Five Year Plans & Industrial Change

2.2.2Five Year Plans & Industrial Change 2

2.2.3End of Topic Test - Five Year Plans

2.2.4Agricultural Collectivisation & its Impact

2.2.5Recovery from War after 1945

2.2.6End of Topic Test - Collectivisation & Recovery

2.3Changes in Industry & Agriculture, 1953-85

2.3.1Light Industry, Chemicals & Consumer Goods

2.3.2Investment in Agriculture & Virgin Lands

2.3.3Attempts at Reform after 1964

2.3.4End of Topic Test - Industry & Agriculture

2.3.5A-A* (AO3/4) - Industry & Agriculture

3Control of the People, 1917-85

3.1Media, Propaganda & Religion

3.1.1State Control of Mass Media & Propaganda

3.1.2Attacks on Religious Beliefs & Practices

3.1.3Attacks on Religious Beliefs & Practices 2

3.1.4End of Topic Test - Media, Propaganda & Religion

3.1.5Cults: Stalin, Khrushchev, Brezhnev

3.1.6A-A*/ - Media, Propaganda & Religion

3.2The Secret Police

3.2.1Attacks on Opponents of the Government

3.2.2The Roles of Yagoda, Yezhov & Beria

3.2.3Andropov & Late Opposition to Soviet Rule

3.2.4End of Topic Test - Secret Police

3.3The State & Cultural Change

3.3.1Proletkult, Avant-Garde & Socialist Realism

3.3.2Nonconformity from the 1950s

3.3.3End of Topic Test - State & Cultural Change

3.3.4A-A* (AO3/4) - Control of the People

4Social Developments, 1917-35

4.1Social Security

4.1.1Full Employment Benefits

4.1.2Housing & Social Benefits

4.1.3Khrushchev, Brezhnev & Stable Society

4.1.4End of Topic Test - Social Security

4.2Women & Family

4.2.1Changing Status of Different Groups

4.2.2Changing Attitudes to Family

4.2.3Changing Attitudes to Family 2

4.2.4End of Topic Test - Women & Family

4.3Education & Young People

4.3.1Growth of Primary, Secondary & Higher Education

4.3.2Reduction of Illiteracy

4.3.3State Control of the Curriculum

4.3.4End of Topic Test - Education & Young People

4.3.5A-A* (AO3/4) - Social Developments

5Historical Interpretations

5.1What Explains the Fall of the USSR, 1985-91?

5.1.1Economic Weakness

5.1.2Attempts at Economic Reform

5.1.3Failure To Reform The Communist Party & Soviet Gov

5.1.4Impact of Reforms

5.1.5End of Topic Test - Economic Reform

5.1.6Impact of the Nationalist Resurgence

5.1.7Impact of the Nationalist Resurgence 2

5.1.8End of the USSR

5.1.9Gorbachev & Yeltsin's Responsibility

5.1.10End of Topic Test - Nationalist Resurgence

5.1.11A-A* (AO3/4) - Explaining the Fall of the USSR

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