Changing Status of Different Groups

Women in Towns Between 1917 and 1953

Between 1917 and 1953, women's employment fluctuated. Although employment rose under Stalin, gender inequality was still prominent.

Gender inequality

Inequality continued between men and women, although women theoretically had equal rights.
The towns were more progressive on women’s issues.

The Zhenotdel

Lenin had set up the Zhenotdel, the women’s arm of the Communist Party.
Alexandra Kollontai was the head of the Zhenotdel. She believed that men and women were inherently different. In the Civil War, the Party recruited women for childcare jobs. Only a few worked in factories to cover labour shortages during that time.

Women's jobs under the NEP

Under the NEP, women were fired to give men their jobs.
- Higher unemployment led many women to prostitution. 39% of men used prostitutes during the 1920s.

Women's jobs under Stalin

Under Stalin, women were much more present in the industrial workforce.
- 10 million were working by 1940.

Women's jobs during the Great Patriotic War

During the Great Patriotic War, women’s participation in the labour force increased even further to make up 75% of urban workers.
Women’s wages were only 60-65% of men’s wages. They often faced harassment in the workplace and were rarely promoted.

Historical assessment

Diane Koenker (1995) studied gender and class in the printing industry in early Soviet Russia.
- She argues that class was privileged over gender in these workplaces. Social justice came above the rights of individuals. Men's work was always prioritised. It was thought to be more important that at least one member of every family had a job (usually the father) rather than that men and women were given jobs equally.
- In October 1929 women were 30% of union members and 60% of the unemployed.

Women in Towns Between 1953 and 1985

Between 1953 and 1985, women had greater access to more skilled jobs. By the end of the period, women dominated certain professions.

Employment in the 1960s

Women made up 45% of the industrial labour force.
- This work was mostly in the light industry on the production line or other low-skilled manual jobs.
- During this period, women also took on administrative jobs.
- In that decade, 74% of those working in clerical, health and education jobs were women.

Employment in the 1970 and 1980s

Certain skilled professions became female-dominated.
By 1985, 70% of medical doctors were women, as well as 65% of those working the cultural and artistic sphere.
Pay in these more ‘female’ spheres was lower than in male-dominated industries.

Women in the Countryside

Over the course of the 20th century, labour in the countryside was increasingly split into gender stereotypes. Particularly under Khrushchev, women were forced into female specific roles.

Agricultural labour from the 1920-1940s

Women, as with the population in general, worked mostly in agriculture from the 1920s to 1940s.
They were responsible for household tasks and sometimes handicrafts, in addition to their regular agricultural work.

Work under Khushchev

During his Virgin Lands Scheme, Khrushchev wanted to recruit more women into specific roles, such as milkmaids, gardeners, and homemakers.
- Women were directed away from professions involving machinery or driving vehicles.
- Their roles under the scheme were normally the most demanding but the poorest paid.
- 6,400 women were recruited. But by August 1958, less than 450 had well-paid professional jobs.

Women's work in the 1970s

The trends started under Khrushchev continued into the 1970s.
- 1970: 72% of the poorest paid farmers were female.
- General prejudice against women taking on leadership positions continued throughout the period.

1Communist Government in the USSR, 1917-85

1.1Establishing Communist Party Control, 1917-24

1.1.1The Creation of a One-Party State

1.1.2Government under Lenin

1.1.3Centralisation of Power

1.1.4End of Topic Test - Establishing Control

1.1.5A-A* (AO3/4) - Establishing Control

1.2Stalin in Power, 1928-53

1.2.1The Elimination of Opponents

1.2.2The Purges of the 1930s

1.2.3End of Topic Test - The Elimination of Opponents

1.2.4Stalin's Power Over the Communist Party

1.2.5Stalin's Power During & After the Communist Party

1.2.6End of Topic Test - Power Over the Communist Party

1.2.7A-A* (AO3/4) - Stalin in Power

1.3Government, 1953-85

1.3.1Changes in Leaders' Control of the State

1.3.2Khrushchev's Attempts to Reform Government

1.3.3End of Topic Test - Government 1953-85

1.3.4Stability & Stagnation, 1964-85

1.3.5End of Topic Test - Stability & Stagnation

1.3.6A-A* (AO3/4) - Government 1953 - 85

2Industrial & Agricultural Changes

2.1Towards a Command Economy

2.1.1Nationalisation of Industry, Communism & the NEP

2.1.2End of Topic Test - Towards a Command Economy

2.2Industry & Agriculture in the Stalin Era

2.2.1Five Year Plans & Industrial Change

2.2.2Five Year Plans & Industrial Change 2

2.2.3End of Topic Test - Five Year Plans

2.2.4Agricultural Collectivisation & its Impact

2.2.5Recovery from War after 1945

2.2.6End of Topic Test - Collectivisation & Recovery

2.3Changes in Industry & Agriculture, 1953-85

2.3.1Light Industry, Chemicals & Consumer Goods

2.3.2Investment in Agriculture & Virgin Lands

2.3.3Attempts at Reform after 1964

2.3.4End of Topic Test - Industry & Agriculture

2.3.5A-A* (AO3/4) - Industry & Agriculture

3Control of the People, 1917-85

3.1Media, Propaganda & Religion

3.1.1State Control of Mass Media & Propaganda

3.1.2Attacks on Religious Beliefs & Practices

3.1.3Attacks on Religious Beliefs & Practices 2

3.1.4End of Topic Test - Media, Propaganda & Religion

3.1.5Cults: Stalin, Khrushchev, Brezhnev

3.1.6A-A*/ - Media, Propaganda & Religion

3.2The Secret Police

3.2.1Attacks on Opponents of the Government

3.2.2The Roles of Yagoda, Yezhov & Beria

3.2.3Andropov & Late Opposition to Soviet Rule

3.2.4End of Topic Test - Secret Police

3.3The State & Cultural Change

3.3.1Proletkult, Avant-Garde & Socialist Realism

3.3.2Nonconformity from the 1950s

3.3.3End of Topic Test - State & Cultural Change

3.3.4A-A* (AO3/4) - Control of the People

4Social Developments, 1917-35

4.1Social Security

4.1.1Full Employment Benefits

4.1.2Housing & Social Benefits

4.1.3Khrushchev, Brezhnev & Stable Society

4.1.4End of Topic Test - Social Security

4.2Women & Family

4.2.1Changing Status of Different Groups

4.2.2Changing Attitudes to Family

4.2.3Changing Attitudes to Family 2

4.2.4End of Topic Test - Women & Family

4.3Education & Young People

4.3.1Growth of Primary, Secondary & Higher Education

4.3.2Reduction of Illiteracy

4.3.3State Control of the Curriculum

4.3.4End of Topic Test - Education & Young People

4.3.5A-A* (AO3/4) - Social Developments

5Historical Interpretations

5.1What Explains the Fall of the USSR, 1985-91?

5.1.1Economic Weakness

5.1.2Attempts at Economic Reform

5.1.3Failure To Reform The Communist Party & Soviet Gov

5.1.4Impact of Reforms

5.1.5End of Topic Test - Economic Reform

5.1.6Impact of the Nationalist Resurgence

5.1.7Impact of the Nationalist Resurgence 2

5.1.8End of the USSR

5.1.9Gorbachev & Yeltsin's Responsibility

5.1.10End of Topic Test - Nationalist Resurgence

5.1.11A-A* (AO3/4) - Explaining the Fall of the USSR

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