6.3.1

Significance of 1989

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Gorbachev's Policies in Eastern Europe and Events in Poland

One of Gorbachev’s main aims was to relax the Soviet control over the satellite states. In a speech in July 1988 he officially renounced the Brezhnev Doctrine. He was believed that countries would only remain communist if they wanted to.

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Poland

  • Widespread anger and unrest were felt Poland in the early 1980s.
  • There were protests over food shortages and the price of consumer products. A trade union called Solidarity was established.
    • Solidarity wanted to end Soviet control of the country. Led by Lech Walesa, it encouraged continued protest against the government although had been officially suppressed in 1981 and its leaders were arrested.
  • By 1986 the Polish Prime Minister believed it was no longer a large threat so ended martial law in Poland and released solidarity members from prison.
    • Solidarity quickly gained 10 million members. The Polish economy continued to decline.
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Agreed reform

  • In 1988, the Polish economy took a downward spiral and the government increased the price of food.
    • Protests happened throughout Poland.
    • Many workers illegally went on strike.
  • This led to talks between the Solidarity leadership and the Polish government. This led to 3 major reforms:
    • The legalisation of non-government trade unions
    • The creation of the position of president
    • The formation of a bicameral legislature; in the lower house 35% of seats would be freely elected.
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1989 elections

  • In 1989, Solidarity won 92% of the Senate and 160 out of 161 seats it was allowed to compete for in the parliament.
  • By the end of 1989, Solidarity was legalised and was able to form a coalition without the Communist Party, establishing an anti-communist government.

Historical interpretation

  • Historian Joseph Smith in The Cold War 1945-1991 (1998) argues that, ‘in 1989, the structure of international relations was dramatically transformed, not from ‘above’ but from ‘below’ by the ‘revolutions’ in Eastern Europe. The West looked on in amazement as the people of Eastern Europe spontaneously took the initiative in bringing about the peaceful overthrow of the Iron Curtain’.

1989 in Eastern Europe

The end of communism in the Soviet satellite states in 1989 spelt the beginning of the end for the USSR.

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Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Kazakhstan

  • In 1988, Estonia stated that they wanted all of their land back.
  • Lithuania and Latvia also made similar demands.
    • They had a trade embargo placed on them by the USSR.
  • Then, in 1989, demonstrations occurred in Kazakhstan which resulted in protestors being killed.
    • Volga Germans and Crimean Tatars wanted their land back.
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Hungary

  • In 1989, Hungarians stated that they wanted a multi-party democracy.
  • Following investigations into the 1956 revolt and a change in leadership, the Hungarian government decided to re-introduce multi-party democracy and hold elections.
  • In Autumn 1989, the Hungarian border with Austria was opened and free movement was allowed.
    • Many fled to the West from Hungary and East Germany.
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Romania

  • Nicolae Ceausescu led Romania from 1965 and was a staunch communist.
  • Discontent occurred due to falling living standards and national debt.
  • Serious opposition mounted in November 1987, when workers stormed the Communist Party headquarters and destroyed records.
  • Rebellion and riots broke out in December 1989.
  • Nicolae and Elena Ceausescu were captured trying to escape the country.
  • After their execution in May 1990, free elections were held and the National Salvation Front had a landslide victory.
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Czechoslovakia

  • In January 1989, people began to demonstrate as they felt that their living standards were poorer than those of Western Europeans.
    • Protestors were jailed and discontent spread.
  • Despite reforms given, more protests occurred in August 1989 and by November violence had broken out.
  • On 19th November, the Civic Forum was formed and a proposed coalition by them with the Communist Party was rejected.
  • Eventually, the communist leadership resigned and free elections were held on 28th December. Havel was elected President.
    • In January 1993, Czechoslovakia was split into two independent states; the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
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Bulgaria

  • Bulgaria was led by Todor Zhivkov who was closely aligned with Brezhnev in the USSR.
  • Resistance to Zhivkov began in 1988 and opposition groups demanded greater religious freedom and rights for the Turks.
  • In 1989, Zhivkov was removed from power and replaced by Mladenov.
  • In April 1990, the Communist Party was dissolved in Bulgaria.
  • In June, free elections were held.
    • This was the first openly contested multi-party election since 1931 and the Social Democratic party won.
    • The state was renamed as the Republic of Bulgaria.
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East Germany and the Berlin Wall

  • In Autumn 1989, the Hungarian border with Austria was opened and free movement was allowed.
  • By September, 60,000 people had fled to the West from Hungary and East Germany.
  • On 9th November, a televised news conference announced that East Germans were leaving and crossing the border to West Germany and West Berlin.
    • The Berlin Wall became ineffective.
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The breach of the Berlin Wall

  • In Autumn 1989, the Hungarian border with Austria was opened and free movement was allowed.
    • By September 60,000 people had fled to the West from Hungary and East Germany.
  • On 9th November, a televised news conference announced that East Germans were leaving and crossing the border to West Germany and West Berlin.
    • Due to this, the Berlin Wall became ineffective.
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The fall of the Berlin Wall

  • The USSR was not prepared to send in forces due to the policies of Glasnost and Perestroika. So, the East German government was forced to consider opening the border.
  • On the night of the 8th November 1989, the border was opened and the Berlin Wall was brought down.
  • On 3rd October 1990, East Germany was incorporated into the Federal Republic of Germany.
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Historical interpretations

  • Historian Kenney (2002) argues that 'scholars resort to a bit of the supernatural to explain how democracy came to the communist bloc.” Kenney argues that “we should be suspicious of this… events like 1989 do not happen out of nowhere.'
  • The historian Kenney (2002) argues that in Eastern Europe in 1989 'ultimately the fear of communism simply dissipated.'
  • Historian of the GDR Mary Fulbrook (1995) argues that ‘... challenges from below interacted with responses from above in the context of unfolding international circumstances.’

The impact of 1989 on the USSR

Gorbachev’s decision not to use force in the satellite states due to his policies of Glasnost and Perestroika largely encouraged movements of independence.

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Questioning the communist party

  • With 6 out of its satellite states gone, the citizens of the USSR began to question their own Communist Party.
  • In 1991, Gorbachev sent Russian troops to the Baltic Republics.
  • Yeltsin helped to broker a deal with resulted in 3 states gaining their independence.
  • In Azerbaijan and Georgia, Russian troops used sharpened spades and poisoned gas to control the demonstrators.
    • In 1990, there was growing anti-communist sentiment in Georgia.
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Non-violence

  • Brezhnev had previously controlled the satellite states with troops and fear.
  • Gorbachev ended this which resulted in them wishing to have greater freedom.
  • In 1991 Gorbachev tried to hold a meeting with the republics but only 9 out of 15 turned up.
    • By 1989 only Albania remained as a communist country.
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Historical interpretations

  • Historian Joseph Smith in The Cold War 1945-1991 (1998) argues that ‘in 1989, the structure of international relations was dramatically transformed, not from ‘above’ but from ‘below’ by the ‘revolutions’ in Eastern Europe. The West looked on in amazement as the people of Eastern Europe spontaneously took the initiative in bringing about the peaceful overthrow of the Iron Curtain’.

Jump to other topics

1Origins of the Cold War, 1945-9

2Widening of the Cold War

3The Global War

4Confrontation & Cooperation

5Brezhnev Era

6Ending of the Cold War

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