Source: https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-8-nuclear-magnetic-resonance

[Revision notes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes.md) › [International A Level](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level.md) › [Chemistry](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry.md) › [Cambridge International](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international.md) › Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

# Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Chemistry: Cambridge International A Level, topic 3.9.8

## Basic NMR Principles

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is a widely used analytical technique for the characterisation of organic compounds.

### Information given by NMR spectra

![Information given by NMR spectra](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/6c3771f3-a44b-45db-88ef-50574ff226eb/ethanol%20proton%20nmr.png)

- An NMR spectrum gives information about the environments and positions of hydrogen and carbon atoms in a molecule.
 - This makes it a very powerful analytical tool for chemists.

### Overall spin

![Overall spin](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/26cd875c-43d2-441a-9dd0-87feebd5fe3d/nucleon%20number.jpg)

- In NMR, we can only analyse nuclei that have an overall spin.
 - These are nuclei that have an odd nucleon number.
 - The nucleon number is equal to the number of protons + number of neutrons.
- 13C and 1H are both examples of such nuclei. This is why these isotopes are commonly used for NMR.
 - The nucleon number of 13C is 13.
 - The nucleon number of 1H is 1.

### External magnetic field

![External magnetic field](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/b0f63780-93e3-4675-a0b2-deead12cd383/magnetic%20field%20nmr.jpg)

- In NMR spectroscopy, we place a sample substance into a magnetic field.
- As we've said, the nuclei of the substance have an overall spin.
 - This means that the nuclei are each very small magnetic fields themselves.
 - The nuclei can interact with the externally applied magnetic field that they are sitting in.
- The overall nuclear spin can either spin with or against the external magnetic field.

## NMR Theory

We will now consider what causes the signals produced in NMR spectra. Remember the NMR can either be 1H NMR or 13C NMR.

### Nuclei in a magnetic field

![Nuclei in a magnetic field](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/4f3bb230-f371-4c53-ae74-f32e204359fc/magnetic%20field%20nmr.jpg)

- The nuclei sit in a magnetic field and some of their overall spins will spin with the magnetic field and some will spin against the field. 
- We call whether they spin with or against the field different spin states.
 - The nuclei spinning with the magnetic field are lower in energy.
 - The nuclei spinning against the magnetic field are higher in energy.

### Energy difference

![Energy difference](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/6761ace6-bfdc-43a1-b80f-fb26cdefc4fd/energy%20gap.jpg)

- The nuclei can exist as either of two spin states which are of different energies. 
- So energy must be gained or lost for a nucleus to change its spin state.
 - We say there is an energy gap between the two spin states.

### Energy gap

![Energy gap](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/4f370217-36b8-467f-a8c3-e5cfb05126fe/promotion%20between%20energy%20level.jpg)

- The energy gap between the two spin states corresponds to energy in the radio frequency region.
- So we use radio waves to change the nuclear spin state of the nuclei.

### NMR signals

![NMR signals](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/a33ce4f6-b2f1-411f-b1f5-d7403f9c6f39/spectra%20energy%20level%20diagr.jpg)

- Transitions between nuclear spin states appear as signals in the NMR spectrum.
 - In 1H NMR, the signals represent the 1H nuclei transitioning spin state.
 - In 13C NMR, the signals represent the 13C nuclei transitioning spin state.

### Different chemical environments

![Different chemical environments](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/b643b749-393e-48b3-ac0b-7e45718a2aa0/1%2C1-dichloroethane%20carbon%20nmr.jpg)

- The exact energy and frequency of radio waves needed to change the nuclear spin state is different in different chemical environments.
- So different NMR signals represent nuclei positioned in different chemical environments.
 - In 1H NMR, each signal represents a 1H in a different chemical environment.
 -  In 13C NMR, each signal represents a 13C in a different chemical environment.

## Chemical Shifts

NMR spectra display signals at specific chemical shift values. The chemical shift is the values that appear on the x-axis of the spectrum.

### NMR signals

![NMR signals](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/96931001-7c95-4237-bb19-3397b5e55b8e/1%2C2-dichloroethane%20carbon%20nmr.jpg)

- As we've seen, a transition of nuclei between spin states causes a specific signal.
- Nuclei in the same environment will produce the same signal.
 - For 1H NMR, 1Hs in the same environment produce the same signal.
 - For 13C NMR, 13Cs in the same environment produce the same signal.

### Chemical shifts

![Chemical shifts](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/d34530cd-ce3b-45a9-be1d-43116ae5d63b/propanol%2013C%20shifts%20-%20example%20spectra.jpg)

- A signal appears on the spectrum at a specific point along the x-axis. This is the chemical shift value.
 - Nuclei in the same environment will produce a signal at the same chemical shift value.
- Overall when we read a spectrum, we can say that each different signal, of a particular chemical shift along the x-axis, represents a nucleus in a different environment.

### Chemical shift notation

![Chemical shift notation](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/d34530cd-ce3b-45a9-be1d-43116ae5d63b/propanol%2013C%20shifts%20-%20example%20spectra.jpg)

- The sign for a chemical shift is δ.
- The units of chemical shift is ppm.
 - This stands for parts per million.

### Chemical shift tables

![Chemical shift tables](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/fb1ee71d-9136-4bb7-b7f3-811cd553c797/proton%20and%20carbon%20shifts.jpg)

- A table of chemical shift values, for both 1H and 13C, has been made.
 - This shows possible chemical shift values for a particular 1H or 13C environment.
 - E.g.  A 1H in an alcohol is a specific environment. ROH signals are found between 0.5δppm to 5.0δppm.

## Test yourself on Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

- What is the nucleon number of the isotope of carbon that is used in NMR?
- What does NMR stand for?
- The energy gap between two spin states corresponds to energy in which region of the electromagnetic spectrum?
- If a 1H NMR spectrum has 4 signals, how many different 1H environments are there in the molecule?
- A spectrum has 3 peaks along the x-axis. How many nuclei are in the molecule?

[Practise this topic for free](https://app.senecalearning.com/classroom/course/2eb3e96b-13a1-48db-b631-5d0098e3ed27/section/e9cffd7c-309b-453f-a9aa-8c0e178b51a3/session)

- Previous topic: [3.9.7 Mass Spectrometry Analysis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-7-mass-spectrometry-analysis.md)
- Next topic: [3.9.9 Carbon-13 NMR](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-9-carbon-13-nmr.md)

## Chemistry: Cambridge International A Level contents

### 1 Physical Chemistry
- 1.1 Atoms, Molecules & Stoichiometry
  - [1.1.1 Relative Masses](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-1-1-relative-masses.md)
  - [1.1.2 The Mole](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-1-2-the-mole.md)
  - [1.1.3 Mass Spectrometry](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-1-3-mass-spectrometry.md)
  - [1.1.4 Empirical & Molecular Formulae](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-1-4-empirical-and-molecular-formulae.md)
  - [1.1.5 Balanced Equations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-1-5-balanced-equations.md)
  - [1.1.6 Molar Volume](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-1-6-molar-volume.md)
  - [1.1.7 End of Topic Test - Amount of Substance](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-1-7-end-of-topic-test-amount-of-substance.md)
- 1.2 Atomic Structure
  - [1.2.1 Fundamental Particles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-1-fundamental-particles.md)
  - [1.2.2 Isotopes & Mass Number](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-2-isotopes-and-mass-number.md)
  - [1.2.3 Electron Shells, Sub-Shells & Orbitals](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-3-electron-shells-sub-shells-and-orbitals.md)
  - [1.2.4 Electron Configuration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-4-electron-configuration.md)
  - [1.2.5 Ionisation Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-5-ionisation-energy.md)
  - [1.2.6 Factors Affecting Ionisation Energies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-6-factors-affecting-ionisation-energies.md)
  - [1.2.7 Trends of Ionisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-7-trends-of-ionisation.md)
  - [1.2.8 Specific Impacts on Ionisation Energies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-8-specific-impacts-on-ionisation-energies.md)
  - [1.2.9 Electron Affinity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-9-electron-affinity.md)
  - [1.2.10 End of Topic Test - Atomic Structure](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-10-end-of-topic-test-atomic-structure.md)
  - [1.2.11 A-A* (AO2/3) - Atomic Structure](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-11-a-a-ao23-atomic-structure.md)
- 1.3 Chemical Bonding
  - [1.3.1 Ionic Bonding](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-1-ionic-bonding.md)
  - [1.3.2 Covalent & Dative Bonding](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-2-covalent-and-dative-bonding.md)
  - [1.3.3 Shapes of Molecules](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-3-shapes-of-molecules.md)
  - [1.3.4 Intermolecular Forces](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-4-intermolecular-forces.md)
  - [1.3.5 Intermolecular Forces 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-5-intermolecular-forces-2.md)
  - [1.3.6 Electronegativity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-6-electronegativity.md)
  - [1.3.7 Bond Length, Bond Energy, & Bond Polarity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-7-bond-length-bond-energy-and-bond-polarity.md)
  - [1.3.8 Metallic Bonding](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-8-metallic-bonding.md)
  - [1.3.9 Physical Properties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-9-physical-properties.md)
  - [1.3.10 End of Topic Test - Bonding](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-10-end-of-topic-test-bonding.md)
  - [1.3.11 A-A* (AO2/3) - Bonding](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-11-a-a-ao23-bonding.md)
- 1.4 States of Matter
  - [1.4.1 Simple Covalent Molecules](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-1-simple-covalent-molecules.md)
  - [1.4.2 The Ideal Gas Equation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-2-the-ideal-gas-equation.md)
  - [1.4.3 States of Matter](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-3-states-of-matter.md)
  - [1.4.4 Particle Diagrams](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-4-particle-diagrams.md)
  - [1.4.5 The Liquid State](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-5-the-liquid-state.md)
  - [1.4.6 Giant Ionic Lattices](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-6-giant-ionic-lattices.md)
  - [1.4.7 Giant Metallic Lattices](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-7-giant-metallic-lattices.md)
  - [1.4.8 Giant Covalent Structures](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-8-giant-covalent-structures.md)
  - [1.4.9 Graphene & Fullerene](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-9-graphene-and-fullerene.md)
  - [1.4.10 Recycling](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-10-recycling.md)
- 1.5 Chemical Energetics
  - [1.5.1 Calorimetry](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-1-calorimetry.md)
  - [1.5.2 Bond Enthalpies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-2-bond-enthalpies.md)
  - [1.5.3 Enthalpy Changes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-3-enthalpy-changes.md)
  - [1.5.4 Hess' Law](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-4-hess-law.md)
  - [1.5.5 Born-Haber Cycles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-5-born-haber-cycles.md)
  - [1.5.6 Born-Haber Cycle Calculations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-6-born-haber-cycle-calculations.md)
  - [1.5.7 Entropy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-7-entropy.md)
  - [1.5.8 Free Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-8-free-energy.md)
  - [1.5.9 End of Topic Test - Energetics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-9-end-of-topic-test-energetics.md)
- 1.6 Electrochemistry
  - [1.6.1 Electrochemical Cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-6-1-electrochemical-cells.md)
  - [1.6.2 Electrochemical Series](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-6-2-electrochemical-series.md)
  - [1.6.3 Commercial Application](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-6-3-commercial-application.md)
  - [1.6.4 Nernst Equation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-6-4-nernst-equation.md)
  - [1.6.5 Redox](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-6-5-redox.md)
- 1.7 Equilibria
  - [1.7.1 Dynamic Equilibrium & Le Chatelier](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-1-dynamic-equilibrium-and-le-chatelier.md)
  - [1.7.2 Kc](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-2-kc.md)
  - [1.7.3 Kp](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-3-kp.md)
  - [1.7.4 pH](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-4-ph.md)
  - [1.7.5 The Ionic Product of Water](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-5-the-ionic-product-of-water.md)
  - [1.7.6 Weak Acids & Bases](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-6-weak-acids-and-bases.md)
  - [1.7.7 Introduction to Solubility Equilibria](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-7-introduction-to-solubility-equilibria.md)
  - [1.7.8 Solubility Equilibria Calculations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-8-solubility-equilibria-calculations.md)
  - [1.7.9 Free Energy of Dissolution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-9-free-energy-of-dissolution.md)
  - [1.7.10 pH and Solubility](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-10-ph-and-solubility.md)
  - [1.7.11 Common-Ion Effect](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-11-common-ion-effect.md)
  - [1.7.12 End of Topic Test - Kp & Electrochemistry](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-12-end-of-topic-test-kp-and-electrochemistry.md)
  - [1.7.13 A-A* (AO2/3) - Electrochemical Cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-13-a-a-ao23-electrochemical-cells.md)
- 1.8 Partition Coefficient
  - [1.8.1 Kpc](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-8-1-kpc.md)
- 1.9 Reaction Kinetics
  - [1.9.1 Collision Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-1-collision-theory.md)
  - [1.9.2 Orders, Rate Constants & Equations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-2-orders-rate-constants-and-equations.md)
  - [1.9.3 Rate Graphs](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-3-rate-graphs.md)
  - [1.9.4 Rate Determining Step](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-4-rate-determining-step.md)
  - [1.9.5 Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-5-maxwell-boltzmann-distribution.md)
  - [1.9.6 Catalysts](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-6-catalysts.md)
  - [1.9.7 Homogeneous Catalysts](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-7-homogeneous-catalysts.md)
  - [1.9.8 Heterogeneous Catalysts](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-8-heterogeneous-catalysts.md)
  - [1.9.9 End of Topic Test - Kinetics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-9-end-of-topic-test-kinetics.md)
  - [1.9.10 End of Topic Test - Rate Equations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-10-end-of-topic-test-rate-equations.md)
  - [1.9.11 A-A* (AO2/3) - Rate Equations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-11-a-a-ao23-rate-equations.md)

### 2 Inorganic Chemistry
- 2.1 The Periodic Table
  - [2.1.1 The Periodic Table](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-1-1-the-periodic-table.md)
  - [2.1.2 Trends in the Periodic Table](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-1-2-trends-in-the-periodic-table.md)
  - [2.1.3 End of Topic Test - Periodicity & Trends](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-1-3-end-of-topic-test-periodicity-and-trends.md)
  - [2.1.4 Ceramics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-1-4-ceramics.md)
  - [2.1.5 Period 3 Elements & Oxides](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-1-5-period-3-elements-and-oxides.md)
  - [2.1.6 Period 3 Oxides](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-1-6-period-3-oxides.md)
  - [2.1.7 End of Topic Test - Period 3](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-1-7-end-of-topic-test-period-3.md)
- 2.2 Group 2
  - [2.2.1 Group 2 Chemistry](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-2-1-group-2-chemistry.md)
- 2.3 Group 17
  - [2.3.1 Introduction to Halogens](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-3-1-introduction-to-halogens.md)
  - [2.3.2 Reactions of Halogens](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-3-2-reactions-of-halogens.md)
  - [2.3.3 Chlorine & Chlorate(I)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-3-3-chlorine-and-chloratei.md)
  - [2.3.4 End of Topic Test - Group 17](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-3-4-end-of-topic-test-group-17.md)
  - [2.3.5 A-A* (AO2/3) - Periodicity, Group 2 & 17](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-3-5-a-a-ao23-periodicity-group-2-and-17.md)
- 2.4 Transition Metals
  - [2.4.1 General Properties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-1-general-properties.md)
  - [2.4.2 Titrations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-2-titrations.md)
  - [2.4.3 Shapes of Complex Ions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-3-shapes-of-complex-ions.md)
  - [2.4.4 Variable Oxidation States](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-4-variable-oxidation-states.md)
  - [2.4.5 Ligands](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-5-ligands.md)
  - [2.4.6 Colours of Ions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-6-colours-of-ions.md)
  - [2.4.7 Stereoisomerism of Complex Ions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-7-stereoisomerism-of-complex-ions.md)
  - [2.4.8 Cisplatin](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-8-cisplatin.md)
  - [2.4.9 Ligand Substitutions & Kstab](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-9-ligand-substitutions-and-kstab.md)
  - [2.4.10 End of Topic Test - Transition Metals](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-10-end-of-topic-test-transition-metals.md)
  - [2.4.11 A-A* (AO2/3) - Transition Metals](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-11-a-a-ao23-transition-metals.md)
- 2.5 Nitrogen & Sulfur
  - [2.5.1 Nitrogen & Ammonia](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-5-1-nitrogen-and-ammonia.md)
  - [2.5.2 Formulated vs Manure Fertilisers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-5-2-formulated-vs-manure-fertilisers.md)
  - [2.5.3 Nitrogen Containing Fertilisers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-5-3-nitrogen-containing-fertilisers.md)
  - [2.5.4 Fertilizers & Eutrophication](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-5-4-fertilizers-and-eutrophication.md)
  - [2.5.5 Common Atmospheric Pollutants & Their Properties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-5-5-common-atmospheric-pollutants-and-their-properties.md)
  - [2.5.6 Catalytic Converters](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-5-6-catalytic-converters.md)
  - [2.5.7 Atmospheric Oxides](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-5-7-atmospheric-oxides.md)

### 3 Organic Chemistry & Analysis
- 3.1 Introduction to Organic Chemistry
  - [3.1.1 Naming Conventions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-1-1-naming-conventions.md)
  - [3.1.2 Mechanism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-1-2-mechanism.md)
  - [3.1.3 Isomerism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-1-3-isomerism.md)
  - [3.1.4 End of Topic Test - Introduction to Organic Chem](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-1-4-end-of-topic-test-introduction-to-organic-chem.md)
- 3.2 Hydrocarbons
  - [3.2.1 Fractional Distillation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-1-fractional-distillation.md)
  - [3.2.2 Cracking](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-2-cracking.md)
  - [3.2.3 Combustion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-3-combustion.md)
  - [3.2.4 Chlorination](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-4-chlorination.md)
  - [3.2.5 End of Topic Test - Alkanes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-5-end-of-topic-test-alkanes.md)
  - [3.2.6 Introduction to Alkenes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-6-introduction-to-alkenes.md)
  - [3.2.7 Reactions of Alkenes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-7-reactions-of-alkenes.md)
  - [3.2.8 Polymerisation Reactions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-8-polymerisation-reactions.md)
  - [3.2.9 End of Topic Test - Alkenes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-9-end-of-topic-test-alkenes.md)
  - [3.2.10 Arenes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-10-arenes.md)
  - [3.2.11 Evidence for Structure of Arenes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-11-evidence-for-structure-of-arenes.md)
  - [3.2.12 Reactions of Benzene](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-12-reactions-of-benzene.md)
  - [3.2.13 End of Topic Test -Arenes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-13-end-of-topic-test-arenes.md)
- 3.3 Halogen Derivatives
  - [3.3.1 Properties of Haloalkanes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-3-1-properties-of-haloalkanes.md)
  - [3.3.2 Substitution Reactions of Haloalkanes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-3-2-substitution-reactions-of-haloalkanes.md)
  - [3.3.3 Environmental Impacts of Haloalkanes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-3-3-environmental-impacts-of-haloalkanes.md)
  - [3.3.4 End of Topic Test - Halogenoalkanes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-3-4-end-of-topic-test-halogenoalkanes.md)
- 3.4 Hydroxy Compounds
  - [3.4.1 Types of Alcohol](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-4-1-types-of-alcohol.md)
  - [3.4.2 Oxidation 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-4-2-oxidation-1.md)
  - [3.4.3 Oxidation 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-4-3-oxidation-2.md)
  - [3.4.4 Elimination](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-4-4-elimination.md)
  - [3.4.5 Acids & Esters](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-4-5-acids-and-esters.md)
  - [3.4.6 Acyl Chlorides & Acylation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-4-6-acyl-chlorides-and-acylation.md)
  - [3.4.7 Phenols & Their Reactions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-4-7-phenols-and-their-reactions.md)
  - [3.4.8 End of Topic Test - Alcohols](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-4-8-end-of-topic-test-alcohols.md)
- 3.5 Carbonyl Compounds
  - [3.5.1 Carbonyls](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-5-1-carbonyls.md)
  - [3.5.2 Hydrogen Bonding & Carbonyls](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-5-2-hydrogen-bonding-and-carbonyls.md)
  - [3.5.3 Aldehydes & Ketones](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-5-3-aldehydes-and-ketones.md)
  - [3.5.4 Tri-Iodomethane Reaction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-5-4-tri-iodomethane-reaction.md)
  - [3.5.5 End of Topic Test -Carbonyls](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-5-5-end-of-topic-test-carbonyls.md)
- 3.6 Carboxylic Acids & Derivatives
  - [3.6.1 Properties of Carboxylic Acids](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-6-1-properties-of-carboxylic-acids.md)
  - [3.6.2 Esters](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-6-2-esters.md)
  - [3.6.3 Acyl Chlorides](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-6-3-acyl-chlorides.md)
  - [3.6.4 End of Topic Test - Carboxylic Acids](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-6-4-end-of-topic-test-carboxylic-acids.md)
- 3.7 Nitrogen Compounds
  - [3.7.1 Nature & Preparation of Amines](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-7-1-nature-and-preparation-of-amines.md)
  - [3.7.2 Basicity & Nucleophilicity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-7-2-basicity-and-nucleophilicity.md)
  - [3.7.3 Amides](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-7-3-amides.md)
  - [3.7.4 Reactions of Amino Acids](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-7-4-reactions-of-amino-acids.md)
  - [3.7.5 Amino Acids](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-7-5-amino-acids.md)
- 3.8 Polymerisation
  - [3.8.1 Properties of Addition Polymers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-8-1-properties-of-addition-polymers.md)
  - [3.8.2 Condensation Polymerisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-8-2-condensation-polymerisation.md)
  - [3.8.3 Effects of Side-Chains on Polymers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-8-3-effects-of-side-chains-on-polymers.md)
  - [3.8.4 Hydrolysis of Ester & Amide Groups](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-8-4-hydrolysis-of-ester-and-amide-groups.md)
  - [3.8.5 Proteins](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-8-5-proteins.md)
  - [3.8.6 DNA](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-8-6-dna.md)
  - [3.8.7 Adhesive & Conducting Polymers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-8-7-adhesive-and-conducting-polymers.md)
  - [3.8.8 End of Topic Test - Amines & Proteins](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-8-8-end-of-topic-test-amines-and-proteins.md)
- 3.9 Analytical Techniques
  - [3.9.1 Chromatography](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-1-chromatography.md)
  - [3.9.2 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-2-high-performance-liquid-chromatography.md)
  - [3.9.3 Gas Chromatography](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-3-gas-chromatography.md)
  - [3.9.4 IR Spectroscopy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-4-ir-spectroscopy.md)
  - [3.9.5 Uses of IR Spectroscopy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-5-uses-of-ir-spectroscopy.md)
  - [3.9.6 Mass Spectrometry](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-6-mass-spectrometry.md)
  - [3.9.7 Mass Spectrometry Analysis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-7-mass-spectrometry-analysis.md)
  - [3.9.8 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-8-nuclear-magnetic-resonance.md)
  - [3.9.9 Carbon-13 NMR](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-9-carbon-13-nmr.md)
  - [3.9.10 Proton NMR I](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-10-proton-nmr-i.md)
  - [3.9.11 Proton NMR II](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-11-proton-nmr-ii.md)
  - [3.9.12 End of Topic Test - Analytical Techniques](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-12-end-of-topic-test-analytical-techniques.md)
  - [3.9.13 A-A* (AO2/3) - Analytical Techniques](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-13-a-a-ao23-analytical-techniques.md)
- 3.10 Organic Synthesis
  - [3.10.1 Chirality & Drug Synthesis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-10-1-chirality-and-drug-synthesis.md)
  - [3.10.2 Organic Synthesis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-10-2-organic-synthesis.md)
  - [3.10.3 Examples of Synthetic Routes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-10-3-examples-of-synthetic-routes.md)
  - [3.10.4 End of Topic Test - Organic Synthesis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-10-4-end-of-topic-test-organic-synthesis.md)