Source: https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-4-variable-oxidation-states [Revision notes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes.md) › [International A Level](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level.md) › [Chemistry](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry.md) › [Cambridge International](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international.md) › Variable Oxidation States # Variable Oxidation States Chemistry: Cambridge International A Level, topic 2.4.4 ## Oxidation States of Vanadium Transition metals have multiple stable ions in different oxidation states. For example, vanadium has four main oxidation states, all of which can be easily prepared. Each vanadium ion is a different colour: ### Vanadium (V) - yellow ![Vanadium (V) - yellow](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/ad5c4196-deec-435f-b48b-84e7565b2b5b/yellow-colour%20(1).png) ### Vanadium (IV) - blue ![Vanadium (IV) - blue](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/bd396fa7-c7dd-446e-8a47-7c513da06e74/blue-colour.png) ### Vanadium (III) - green ![Vanadium (III) - green](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/6c9dc5a0-345b-4507-8116-c8f54fe03230/green-colour.png) ### Vanadium (II) - violet ![Vanadium (II) - violet](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/3975cbed-a7a6-4216-af9c-deb04c276ca2/violet-colour.png) ## Vanadium Ion Synthesis Here we shall look into preparing various oxidation states of vanadium. ### Preparation of vanadium ions ![Preparation of vanadium ions](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-03/5e28b3d9-024e-4e00-b326-15e3f5221c28/shutterstock_177901814.jpg) - Different ions of vanadium can be prepared by successive reduction with zinc in acid solution. - Zinc will donate two electrons to vanadium, so to move vanadium down one oxidation state you add half as much zinc as you have vanadium. - The equations for each reduction are on the next slides. ### Vanadium(V) → vanadium(IV) ![Vanadium(V) → vanadium(IV)](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/e27ff672-6109-4c60-8c9f-ae4cebde6609/yellow%20-%20blue.png) - Vanadium(V) exists as the vanadate ion, VO2+. - The reduction equation is: - 2VO2+(aq) + Zn(s) + 4H+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + 2VO2+(aq) + 2H2O(l) - There is a colour change from yellow to blue. ### Vanadium(IV) → vanadium(III) ![Vanadium(IV) → vanadium(III)](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/66e02936-509e-4794-8ba6-e1bedb31e436/blue%20-%20green%20(1).png) - The reduction equation is: - 2VO2+(aq) + Zn(s) + 4H+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + 2V3+(aq) + 2H2O(l) - There is a colour change from blue to green. ### Vanadium(III) → vanadium(II) ![Vanadium(III) → vanadium(II)](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/de5c6a05-4404-4013-99bb-4822f3dd400c/green-violet.png) - The reduction equation is: - 2V3+(aq) + Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2V2+(aq) - There is a colour change from green to violet. ## Redox Potentials Redox potentials give information about the stability of a complex. They are dependent on many factors. ### Redox potentials ![Redox potentials](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-07/defbb241-d8e9-4b3a-83d3-821f2c90cda2/Electrochemical%20series.jpg) - Redox potentials show you how easy a metal can be reduced. - A redox potential is just another name for an electrode potential. - Higher values mean the ion is less stable and more easily reduced. - Standard redox potentials are quoted relative to a standard hydrogen electrode and under standard conditions. ### Differences to standard potentials ![Differences to standard potentials](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/2f758112-5f93-4129-b350-6c97704ed568/terms-conditions-glass-.jpg) - A redox potential is not always the same as a standard electrode potential. - To change a redox potential from the standard electrode potential, you change the conditions. - In particular, redox potentials can depend on: - Ligands. - pH. ### Ligands ![Ligands](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/20059925-e3b9-4476-b2ee-236bcd04c698/ligand-complex-transition-metal.png) - Standard redox potentials are measured in aqueous solution. - Changing the ligands will alter the redox potential depending on the bond strength to the metal. ### pH ![pH](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/chemistry/Edexcel/5%20Acids,%20Alkalis,%20pH/universal_indicator.jpg) - Certain potentials involve H+. - If the concentration of H+ is changed, the redox potential will change. - Usually, a higher concentration of H+ means a higher redox potential. ## Test yourself on Variable Oxidation States - How many main oxidation states does vanadium have? - Which vanadium ion is blue? - What is a good metal to use to prepare different oxidation states of vanadium? - Which of the following best describes a redox potential? - A higher concentration of H+ ions usually means what? [Practise this topic for free](https://app.senecalearning.com/classroom/course/2eb3e96b-13a1-48db-b631-5d0098e3ed27/section/c2880f7a-328e-44fb-b797-9e0dbf5f165b/session) - Previous topic: [2.4.3 Shapes of Complex Ions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-3-shapes-of-complex-ions.md) - Next topic: [2.4.5 Ligands](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-5-ligands.md) ## Chemistry: Cambridge International A Level contents ### 1 Physical Chemistry - 1.1 Atoms, Molecules & Stoichiometry - [1.1.1 Relative Masses](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-1-1-relative-masses.md) - [1.1.2 The Mole](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-1-2-the-mole.md) - [1.1.3 Mass Spectrometry](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-1-3-mass-spectrometry.md) - [1.1.4 Empirical & Molecular Formulae](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-1-4-empirical-and-molecular-formulae.md) - [1.1.5 Balanced Equations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-1-5-balanced-equations.md) - [1.1.6 Molar Volume](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-1-6-molar-volume.md) - [1.1.7 End of Topic Test - Amount of Substance](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-1-7-end-of-topic-test-amount-of-substance.md) - 1.2 Atomic Structure - [1.2.1 Fundamental Particles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-1-fundamental-particles.md) - [1.2.2 Isotopes & Mass Number](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-2-isotopes-and-mass-number.md) - [1.2.3 Electron Shells, Sub-Shells & Orbitals](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-3-electron-shells-sub-shells-and-orbitals.md) - [1.2.4 Electron Configuration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-4-electron-configuration.md) - [1.2.5 Ionisation Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-5-ionisation-energy.md) - [1.2.6 Factors Affecting Ionisation Energies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-6-factors-affecting-ionisation-energies.md) - [1.2.7 Trends of Ionisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-7-trends-of-ionisation.md) - [1.2.8 Specific Impacts on Ionisation Energies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-8-specific-impacts-on-ionisation-energies.md) - [1.2.9 Electron Affinity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-9-electron-affinity.md) - [1.2.10 End of Topic Test - Atomic Structure](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-10-end-of-topic-test-atomic-structure.md) - [1.2.11 A-A* (AO2/3) - Atomic Structure](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-11-a-a-ao23-atomic-structure.md) - 1.3 Chemical Bonding - [1.3.1 Ionic Bonding](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-1-ionic-bonding.md) - [1.3.2 Covalent & Dative Bonding](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-2-covalent-and-dative-bonding.md) - [1.3.3 Shapes of Molecules](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-3-shapes-of-molecules.md) - [1.3.4 Intermolecular Forces](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-4-intermolecular-forces.md) - [1.3.5 Intermolecular Forces 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-5-intermolecular-forces-2.md) - [1.3.6 Electronegativity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-6-electronegativity.md) - [1.3.7 Bond Length, Bond Energy, & Bond Polarity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-7-bond-length-bond-energy-and-bond-polarity.md) - [1.3.8 Metallic Bonding](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-8-metallic-bonding.md) - [1.3.9 Physical Properties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-9-physical-properties.md) - [1.3.10 End of Topic Test - Bonding](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-10-end-of-topic-test-bonding.md) - [1.3.11 A-A* (AO2/3) - Bonding](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-11-a-a-ao23-bonding.md) - 1.4 States of Matter - [1.4.1 Simple Covalent Molecules](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-1-simple-covalent-molecules.md) - [1.4.2 The Ideal Gas Equation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-2-the-ideal-gas-equation.md) - [1.4.3 States of Matter](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-3-states-of-matter.md) - [1.4.4 Particle Diagrams](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-4-particle-diagrams.md) - [1.4.5 The Liquid State](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-5-the-liquid-state.md) - [1.4.6 Giant Ionic Lattices](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-6-giant-ionic-lattices.md) - [1.4.7 Giant Metallic Lattices](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-7-giant-metallic-lattices.md) - [1.4.8 Giant Covalent Structures](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-8-giant-covalent-structures.md) - [1.4.9 Graphene & Fullerene](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-9-graphene-and-fullerene.md) - [1.4.10 Recycling](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-10-recycling.md) - 1.5 Chemical Energetics - [1.5.1 Calorimetry](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-1-calorimetry.md) - [1.5.2 Bond Enthalpies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-2-bond-enthalpies.md) - [1.5.3 Enthalpy Changes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-3-enthalpy-changes.md) - [1.5.4 Hess' Law](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-4-hess-law.md) - [1.5.5 Born-Haber Cycles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-5-born-haber-cycles.md) - [1.5.6 Born-Haber Cycle Calculations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-6-born-haber-cycle-calculations.md) - [1.5.7 Entropy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-7-entropy.md) - [1.5.8 Free Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-8-free-energy.md) - [1.5.9 End of Topic Test - Energetics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-9-end-of-topic-test-energetics.md) - 1.6 Electrochemistry - [1.6.1 Electrochemical Cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-6-1-electrochemical-cells.md) - [1.6.2 Electrochemical Series](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-6-2-electrochemical-series.md) - [1.6.3 Commercial Application](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-6-3-commercial-application.md) - [1.6.4 Nernst Equation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-6-4-nernst-equation.md) - [1.6.5 Redox](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-6-5-redox.md) - 1.7 Equilibria - [1.7.1 Dynamic Equilibrium & Le Chatelier](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-1-dynamic-equilibrium-and-le-chatelier.md) - [1.7.2 Kc](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-2-kc.md) - [1.7.3 Kp](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-3-kp.md) - [1.7.4 pH](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-4-ph.md) - [1.7.5 The Ionic Product of Water](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-5-the-ionic-product-of-water.md) - [1.7.6 Weak Acids & Bases](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-6-weak-acids-and-bases.md) - [1.7.7 Introduction to Solubility Equilibria](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-7-introduction-to-solubility-equilibria.md) - [1.7.8 Solubility Equilibria Calculations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-8-solubility-equilibria-calculations.md) - [1.7.9 Free Energy of Dissolution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-9-free-energy-of-dissolution.md) - [1.7.10 pH and Solubility](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-10-ph-and-solubility.md) - [1.7.11 Common-Ion Effect](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-11-common-ion-effect.md) - [1.7.12 End of Topic Test - Kp & Electrochemistry](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-12-end-of-topic-test-kp-and-electrochemistry.md) - [1.7.13 A-A* (AO2/3) - Electrochemical Cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-13-a-a-ao23-electrochemical-cells.md) - 1.8 Partition Coefficient - [1.8.1 Kpc](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-8-1-kpc.md) - 1.9 Reaction Kinetics - [1.9.1 Collision Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-1-collision-theory.md) - [1.9.2 Orders, Rate Constants & Equations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-2-orders-rate-constants-and-equations.md) - [1.9.3 Rate Graphs](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-3-rate-graphs.md) - [1.9.4 Rate Determining Step](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-4-rate-determining-step.md) - [1.9.5 Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-5-maxwell-boltzmann-distribution.md) - [1.9.6 Catalysts](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-6-catalysts.md) - [1.9.7 Homogeneous Catalysts](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-7-homogeneous-catalysts.md) - [1.9.8 Heterogeneous Catalysts](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-8-heterogeneous-catalysts.md) - [1.9.9 End of Topic Test - Kinetics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-9-end-of-topic-test-kinetics.md) - [1.9.10 End of Topic Test - Rate Equations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-10-end-of-topic-test-rate-equations.md) - [1.9.11 A-A* (AO2/3) - Rate Equations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-11-a-a-ao23-rate-equations.md) ### 2 Inorganic Chemistry - 2.1 The Periodic Table - [2.1.1 The Periodic Table](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-1-1-the-periodic-table.md) - [2.1.2 Trends in the Periodic Table](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-1-2-trends-in-the-periodic-table.md) - [2.1.3 End of Topic Test - Periodicity & Trends](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-1-3-end-of-topic-test-periodicity-and-trends.md) - [2.1.4 Ceramics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-1-4-ceramics.md) - [2.1.5 Period 3 Elements & Oxides](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-1-5-period-3-elements-and-oxides.md) - [2.1.6 Period 3 Oxides](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-1-6-period-3-oxides.md) - [2.1.7 End of Topic Test - Period 3](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-1-7-end-of-topic-test-period-3.md) - 2.2 Group 2 - [2.2.1 Group 2 Chemistry](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-2-1-group-2-chemistry.md) - 2.3 Group 17 - [2.3.1 Introduction to Halogens](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-3-1-introduction-to-halogens.md) - [2.3.2 Reactions of Halogens](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-3-2-reactions-of-halogens.md) - [2.3.3 Chlorine & Chlorate(I)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-3-3-chlorine-and-chloratei.md) - [2.3.4 End of Topic Test - Group 17](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-3-4-end-of-topic-test-group-17.md) - [2.3.5 A-A* (AO2/3) - Periodicity, Group 2 & 17](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-3-5-a-a-ao23-periodicity-group-2-and-17.md) - 2.4 Transition Metals - [2.4.1 General Properties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-1-general-properties.md) - [2.4.2 Titrations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-2-titrations.md) - [2.4.3 Shapes of Complex Ions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-3-shapes-of-complex-ions.md) - [2.4.4 Variable Oxidation States](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-4-variable-oxidation-states.md) - [2.4.5 Ligands](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-5-ligands.md) - [2.4.6 Colours of Ions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-6-colours-of-ions.md) - [2.4.7 Stereoisomerism of Complex Ions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-7-stereoisomerism-of-complex-ions.md) - [2.4.8 Cisplatin](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-8-cisplatin.md) - [2.4.9 Ligand Substitutions & Kstab](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-9-ligand-substitutions-and-kstab.md) - [2.4.10 End of Topic Test - Transition Metals](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-10-end-of-topic-test-transition-metals.md) - [2.4.11 A-A* (AO2/3) - Transition Metals](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-11-a-a-ao23-transition-metals.md) - 2.5 Nitrogen & Sulfur - [2.5.1 Nitrogen & Ammonia](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-5-1-nitrogen-and-ammonia.md) - [2.5.2 Formulated vs Manure Fertilisers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-5-2-formulated-vs-manure-fertilisers.md) - [2.5.3 Nitrogen Containing Fertilisers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-5-3-nitrogen-containing-fertilisers.md) - [2.5.4 Fertilizers & Eutrophication](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-5-4-fertilizers-and-eutrophication.md) - [2.5.5 Common Atmospheric Pollutants & Their Properties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-5-5-common-atmospheric-pollutants-and-their-properties.md) - [2.5.6 Catalytic Converters](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-5-6-catalytic-converters.md) - [2.5.7 Atmospheric Oxides](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-5-7-atmospheric-oxides.md) ### 3 Organic Chemistry & Analysis - 3.1 Introduction to Organic Chemistry - [3.1.1 Naming Conventions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-1-1-naming-conventions.md) - [3.1.2 Mechanism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-1-2-mechanism.md) - [3.1.3 Isomerism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-1-3-isomerism.md) - [3.1.4 End of Topic Test - Introduction to Organic Chem](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-1-4-end-of-topic-test-introduction-to-organic-chem.md) - 3.2 Hydrocarbons - [3.2.1 Fractional Distillation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-1-fractional-distillation.md) - [3.2.2 Cracking](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-2-cracking.md) - [3.2.3 Combustion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-3-combustion.md) - [3.2.4 Chlorination](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-4-chlorination.md) - [3.2.5 End of Topic Test - Alkanes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-5-end-of-topic-test-alkanes.md) - [3.2.6 Introduction to Alkenes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-6-introduction-to-alkenes.md) - [3.2.7 Reactions of Alkenes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-7-reactions-of-alkenes.md) - [3.2.8 Polymerisation Reactions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-8-polymerisation-reactions.md) - [3.2.9 End of Topic Test - Alkenes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-9-end-of-topic-test-alkenes.md) - [3.2.10 Arenes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-10-arenes.md) - [3.2.11 Evidence for Structure of Arenes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-11-evidence-for-structure-of-arenes.md) - [3.2.12 Reactions of Benzene](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-12-reactions-of-benzene.md) - [3.2.13 End of Topic Test -Arenes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-13-end-of-topic-test-arenes.md) - 3.3 Halogen Derivatives - [3.3.1 Properties of Haloalkanes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-3-1-properties-of-haloalkanes.md) - [3.3.2 Substitution Reactions of Haloalkanes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-3-2-substitution-reactions-of-haloalkanes.md) - [3.3.3 Environmental Impacts of Haloalkanes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-3-3-environmental-impacts-of-haloalkanes.md) - [3.3.4 End of Topic Test - Halogenoalkanes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-3-4-end-of-topic-test-halogenoalkanes.md) - 3.4 Hydroxy Compounds - [3.4.1 Types of Alcohol](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-4-1-types-of-alcohol.md) - [3.4.2 Oxidation 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-4-2-oxidation-1.md) - [3.4.3 Oxidation 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-4-3-oxidation-2.md) - [3.4.4 Elimination](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-4-4-elimination.md) - [3.4.5 Acids & Esters](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-4-5-acids-and-esters.md) - [3.4.6 Acyl Chlorides & Acylation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-4-6-acyl-chlorides-and-acylation.md) - [3.4.7 Phenols & Their Reactions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-4-7-phenols-and-their-reactions.md) - [3.4.8 End of Topic Test - Alcohols](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-4-8-end-of-topic-test-alcohols.md) - 3.5 Carbonyl Compounds - [3.5.1 Carbonyls](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-5-1-carbonyls.md) - [3.5.2 Hydrogen Bonding & Carbonyls](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-5-2-hydrogen-bonding-and-carbonyls.md) - [3.5.3 Aldehydes & Ketones](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-5-3-aldehydes-and-ketones.md) - [3.5.4 Tri-Iodomethane Reaction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-5-4-tri-iodomethane-reaction.md) - [3.5.5 End of Topic Test -Carbonyls](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-5-5-end-of-topic-test-carbonyls.md) - 3.6 Carboxylic Acids & Derivatives - [3.6.1 Properties of Carboxylic Acids](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-6-1-properties-of-carboxylic-acids.md) - [3.6.2 Esters](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-6-2-esters.md) - [3.6.3 Acyl Chlorides](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-6-3-acyl-chlorides.md) - [3.6.4 End of Topic Test - Carboxylic Acids](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-6-4-end-of-topic-test-carboxylic-acids.md) - 3.7 Nitrogen Compounds - [3.7.1 Nature & Preparation of Amines](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-7-1-nature-and-preparation-of-amines.md) - [3.7.2 Basicity & Nucleophilicity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-7-2-basicity-and-nucleophilicity.md) - [3.7.3 Amides](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-7-3-amides.md) - [3.7.4 Reactions of Amino Acids](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-7-4-reactions-of-amino-acids.md) - [3.7.5 Amino Acids](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-7-5-amino-acids.md) - 3.8 Polymerisation - [3.8.1 Properties of Addition Polymers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-8-1-properties-of-addition-polymers.md) - [3.8.2 Condensation Polymerisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-8-2-condensation-polymerisation.md) - [3.8.3 Effects of Side-Chains on Polymers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-8-3-effects-of-side-chains-on-polymers.md) - [3.8.4 Hydrolysis of Ester & Amide Groups](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-8-4-hydrolysis-of-ester-and-amide-groups.md) - [3.8.5 Proteins](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-8-5-proteins.md) - [3.8.6 DNA](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-8-6-dna.md) - [3.8.7 Adhesive & Conducting Polymers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-8-7-adhesive-and-conducting-polymers.md) - [3.8.8 End of Topic Test - Amines & Proteins](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-8-8-end-of-topic-test-amines-and-proteins.md) - 3.9 Analytical Techniques - [3.9.1 Chromatography](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-1-chromatography.md) - [3.9.2 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-2-high-performance-liquid-chromatography.md) - [3.9.3 Gas Chromatography](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-3-gas-chromatography.md) - [3.9.4 IR Spectroscopy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-4-ir-spectroscopy.md) - [3.9.5 Uses of IR Spectroscopy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-5-uses-of-ir-spectroscopy.md) - [3.9.6 Mass Spectrometry](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-6-mass-spectrometry.md) - [3.9.7 Mass Spectrometry Analysis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-7-mass-spectrometry-analysis.md) - [3.9.8 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-8-nuclear-magnetic-resonance.md) - [3.9.9 Carbon-13 NMR](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-9-carbon-13-nmr.md) - [3.9.10 Proton NMR I](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-10-proton-nmr-i.md) - [3.9.11 Proton NMR II](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-11-proton-nmr-ii.md) - [3.9.12 End of Topic Test - Analytical Techniques](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-12-end-of-topic-test-analytical-techniques.md) - [3.9.13 A-A* (AO2/3) - Analytical Techniques](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-13-a-a-ao23-analytical-techniques.md) - 3.10 Organic Synthesis - [3.10.1 Chirality & Drug Synthesis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-10-1-chirality-and-drug-synthesis.md) - [3.10.2 Organic Synthesis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-10-2-organic-synthesis.md) - [3.10.3 Examples of Synthetic Routes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-10-3-examples-of-synthetic-routes.md) - [3.10.4 End of Topic Test - Organic Synthesis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-10-4-end-of-topic-test-organic-synthesis.md)