Source: https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-3-states-of-matter [Revision notes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes.md) › [International A Level](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level.md) › [Chemistry](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry.md) › [Cambridge International](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international.md) › States of Matter # States of Matter Chemistry: Cambridge International A Level, topic 1.4.3 ## States of Matter Matter is all around us. Anything which has mass and takes up space can be called matter. This includes solids, liquids, and even gasses. Matter can move between these different states and each has its own properties. ### Solids ![Solids](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/dba3319b-fa22-4fd1-ba50-4854a3b0171e/brick-solid-.jpg) - Solids tend to form at lower temperatures. - Solids have a defined shape and do not mold to the shape of their container. - The movement of particles in a solid is very limited. - The way particles pack together in a solid, influences the shape and properties of the solid. ### Liquids ![Liquids](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/biology/1.1.1%20-%20Types%20of%20cells/water-glass-theme-water-16490-min.jpg) - Liquids are fluid and take the shape of their container. - The surface of a liquid will naturally be flat. - Liquid particles are closely associated but can move more freely than in solids. - The properties of the liquid depend on the intermolecular interactions (e.g. hydrogen bonds, polar interactions, etc.) or on the environment (e.g temperature). ### Gasses ![Gasses](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/100fe2ff-d495-4953-a9f1-d98411508c98/balloons-1786430_1280.jpg) - Gasses do not have a defined shape or volume. - The spacing between particles is far larger than in solids or liquids. - The particles in a gas are constantly in motion and form relatively infrequent and weak interactions with each other. - The volume of a gas is dependent on external factors such as temperature and pressure. ### Molar volume ![Molar volume](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/physics/1.3.1%20-%20Mass,weight%20and%20density/measuring-cylinder.jpg) - Molar volume is the volume occupied by one mole of substance at a certain temperature and pressure. - Solids and liquids have similar molar volumes because their particles are held close together and the distance between particles cannot vary by large amounts. - Gas particles can move very independently of each other and are not closely associated. - The molar volume of a gas is determined, to a large extent, by temperature and pressure. - At STP, the molar volume of a gas is 24 dm3. ## Solids The structure of a solid depends on its composition and the freezing process. ### Crystalline solids ![Crystalline solids](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/chemistry/5.1.1-Exothermic%20and%20endothermic%20reactions/ice-cubes-1224804_640-min.jpg) - Crystalline solids have particles that are arranged in an ordered, repeating formation. - Small particles tend to form ordered, crystalline solids. - Examples of crystalline solids include ionic and metallic latices. ### Amorphous solids ![Amorphous solids](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/2182f8af-e5a3-473b-b10f-318b147c2bf7/advent-candles-.jpg) - Amorphous solids have tightly associated particles which are not well-ordered. - Amorphous solids tend to form when: - freezing occurs rapidly and particles do not have time to order. - there are large particles or impurities which disrupt the regular arrangement of particles. - There are many examples of these from large hydrocarbon solids, such as wax, to molecular solids such as silicon dioxide (under certain conditions). ## Test yourself on States of Matter - Which of the following statements about molar volume is NOT true? [Practise this topic for free](https://app.senecalearning.com/classroom/course/2eb3e96b-13a1-48db-b631-5d0098e3ed27/section/f4470864-3f44-44b2-a009-b47822160507/session) - Previous topic: [1.4.2 The Ideal Gas Equation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-2-the-ideal-gas-equation.md) - Next topic: [1.4.4 Particle Diagrams](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-4-particle-diagrams.md) ## Chemistry: Cambridge International A Level contents ### 1 Physical Chemistry - 1.1 Atoms, Molecules & Stoichiometry - [1.1.1 Relative Masses](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-1-1-relative-masses.md) - [1.1.2 The Mole](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-1-2-the-mole.md) - [1.1.3 Mass Spectrometry](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-1-3-mass-spectrometry.md) - [1.1.4 Empirical & Molecular Formulae](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-1-4-empirical-and-molecular-formulae.md) - [1.1.5 Balanced Equations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-1-5-balanced-equations.md) - [1.1.6 Molar Volume](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-1-6-molar-volume.md) - [1.1.7 End of Topic Test - Amount of Substance](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-1-7-end-of-topic-test-amount-of-substance.md) - 1.2 Atomic Structure - [1.2.1 Fundamental Particles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-1-fundamental-particles.md) - [1.2.2 Isotopes & Mass Number](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-2-isotopes-and-mass-number.md) - [1.2.3 Electron Shells, Sub-Shells & Orbitals](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-3-electron-shells-sub-shells-and-orbitals.md) - [1.2.4 Electron Configuration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-4-electron-configuration.md) - [1.2.5 Ionisation Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-5-ionisation-energy.md) - [1.2.6 Factors Affecting Ionisation Energies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-6-factors-affecting-ionisation-energies.md) - [1.2.7 Trends of Ionisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-7-trends-of-ionisation.md) - [1.2.8 Specific Impacts on Ionisation Energies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-8-specific-impacts-on-ionisation-energies.md) - [1.2.9 Electron Affinity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-9-electron-affinity.md) - [1.2.10 End of Topic Test - Atomic Structure](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-10-end-of-topic-test-atomic-structure.md) - [1.2.11 A-A* (AO2/3) - Atomic Structure](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-2-11-a-a-ao23-atomic-structure.md) - 1.3 Chemical Bonding - [1.3.1 Ionic Bonding](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-1-ionic-bonding.md) - [1.3.2 Covalent & Dative Bonding](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-2-covalent-and-dative-bonding.md) - [1.3.3 Shapes of Molecules](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-3-shapes-of-molecules.md) - [1.3.4 Intermolecular Forces](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-4-intermolecular-forces.md) - [1.3.5 Intermolecular Forces 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-5-intermolecular-forces-2.md) - [1.3.6 Electronegativity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-6-electronegativity.md) - [1.3.7 Bond Length, Bond Energy, & Bond Polarity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-7-bond-length-bond-energy-and-bond-polarity.md) - [1.3.8 Metallic Bonding](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-8-metallic-bonding.md) - [1.3.9 Physical Properties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-9-physical-properties.md) - [1.3.10 End of Topic Test - Bonding](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-10-end-of-topic-test-bonding.md) - [1.3.11 A-A* (AO2/3) - Bonding](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-3-11-a-a-ao23-bonding.md) - 1.4 States of Matter - [1.4.1 Simple Covalent Molecules](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-1-simple-covalent-molecules.md) - [1.4.2 The Ideal Gas Equation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-2-the-ideal-gas-equation.md) - [1.4.3 States of Matter](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-3-states-of-matter.md) - [1.4.4 Particle Diagrams](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-4-particle-diagrams.md) - [1.4.5 The Liquid State](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-5-the-liquid-state.md) - [1.4.6 Giant Ionic Lattices](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-6-giant-ionic-lattices.md) - [1.4.7 Giant Metallic Lattices](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-7-giant-metallic-lattices.md) - [1.4.8 Giant Covalent Structures](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-8-giant-covalent-structures.md) - [1.4.9 Graphene & Fullerene](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-9-graphene-and-fullerene.md) - [1.4.10 Recycling](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-4-10-recycling.md) - 1.5 Chemical Energetics - [1.5.1 Calorimetry](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-1-calorimetry.md) - [1.5.2 Bond Enthalpies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-2-bond-enthalpies.md) - [1.5.3 Enthalpy Changes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-3-enthalpy-changes.md) - [1.5.4 Hess' Law](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-4-hess-law.md) - [1.5.5 Born-Haber Cycles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-5-born-haber-cycles.md) - [1.5.6 Born-Haber Cycle Calculations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-6-born-haber-cycle-calculations.md) - [1.5.7 Entropy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-7-entropy.md) - [1.5.8 Free Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-8-free-energy.md) - [1.5.9 End of Topic Test - Energetics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-5-9-end-of-topic-test-energetics.md) - 1.6 Electrochemistry - [1.6.1 Electrochemical Cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-6-1-electrochemical-cells.md) - [1.6.2 Electrochemical Series](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-6-2-electrochemical-series.md) - [1.6.3 Commercial Application](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-6-3-commercial-application.md) - [1.6.4 Nernst Equation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-6-4-nernst-equation.md) - [1.6.5 Redox](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-6-5-redox.md) - 1.7 Equilibria - [1.7.1 Dynamic Equilibrium & Le Chatelier](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-1-dynamic-equilibrium-and-le-chatelier.md) - [1.7.2 Kc](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-2-kc.md) - [1.7.3 Kp](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-3-kp.md) - [1.7.4 pH](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-4-ph.md) - [1.7.5 The Ionic Product of Water](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-5-the-ionic-product-of-water.md) - [1.7.6 Weak Acids & Bases](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-6-weak-acids-and-bases.md) - [1.7.7 Introduction to Solubility Equilibria](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-7-introduction-to-solubility-equilibria.md) - [1.7.8 Solubility Equilibria Calculations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-8-solubility-equilibria-calculations.md) - [1.7.9 Free Energy of Dissolution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-9-free-energy-of-dissolution.md) - [1.7.10 pH and Solubility](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-10-ph-and-solubility.md) - [1.7.11 Common-Ion Effect](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-11-common-ion-effect.md) - [1.7.12 End of Topic Test - Kp & Electrochemistry](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-12-end-of-topic-test-kp-and-electrochemistry.md) - [1.7.13 A-A* (AO2/3) - Electrochemical Cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-7-13-a-a-ao23-electrochemical-cells.md) - 1.8 Partition Coefficient - [1.8.1 Kpc](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-8-1-kpc.md) - 1.9 Reaction Kinetics - [1.9.1 Collision Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-1-collision-theory.md) - [1.9.2 Orders, Rate Constants & Equations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-2-orders-rate-constants-and-equations.md) - [1.9.3 Rate Graphs](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-3-rate-graphs.md) - [1.9.4 Rate Determining Step](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-4-rate-determining-step.md) - [1.9.5 Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-5-maxwell-boltzmann-distribution.md) - [1.9.6 Catalysts](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-6-catalysts.md) - [1.9.7 Homogeneous Catalysts](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-7-homogeneous-catalysts.md) - [1.9.8 Heterogeneous Catalysts](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-8-heterogeneous-catalysts.md) - [1.9.9 End of Topic Test - Kinetics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-9-end-of-topic-test-kinetics.md) - [1.9.10 End of Topic Test - Rate Equations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-10-end-of-topic-test-rate-equations.md) - [1.9.11 A-A* (AO2/3) - Rate Equations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/1-9-11-a-a-ao23-rate-equations.md) ### 2 Inorganic Chemistry - 2.1 The Periodic Table - [2.1.1 The Periodic Table](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-1-1-the-periodic-table.md) - [2.1.2 Trends in the Periodic Table](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-1-2-trends-in-the-periodic-table.md) - [2.1.3 End of Topic Test - Periodicity & Trends](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-1-3-end-of-topic-test-periodicity-and-trends.md) - [2.1.4 Ceramics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-1-4-ceramics.md) - [2.1.5 Period 3 Elements & Oxides](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-1-5-period-3-elements-and-oxides.md) - [2.1.6 Period 3 Oxides](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-1-6-period-3-oxides.md) - [2.1.7 End of Topic Test - Period 3](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-1-7-end-of-topic-test-period-3.md) - 2.2 Group 2 - [2.2.1 Group 2 Chemistry](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-2-1-group-2-chemistry.md) - 2.3 Group 17 - [2.3.1 Introduction to Halogens](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-3-1-introduction-to-halogens.md) - [2.3.2 Reactions of Halogens](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-3-2-reactions-of-halogens.md) - [2.3.3 Chlorine & Chlorate(I)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-3-3-chlorine-and-chloratei.md) - [2.3.4 End of Topic Test - Group 17](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-3-4-end-of-topic-test-group-17.md) - [2.3.5 A-A* (AO2/3) - Periodicity, Group 2 & 17](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-3-5-a-a-ao23-periodicity-group-2-and-17.md) - 2.4 Transition Metals - [2.4.1 General Properties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-1-general-properties.md) - [2.4.2 Titrations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-2-titrations.md) - [2.4.3 Shapes of Complex Ions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-3-shapes-of-complex-ions.md) - [2.4.4 Variable Oxidation States](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-4-variable-oxidation-states.md) - [2.4.5 Ligands](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-5-ligands.md) - [2.4.6 Colours of Ions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-6-colours-of-ions.md) - [2.4.7 Stereoisomerism of Complex Ions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-7-stereoisomerism-of-complex-ions.md) - [2.4.8 Cisplatin](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-8-cisplatin.md) - [2.4.9 Ligand Substitutions & Kstab](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-9-ligand-substitutions-and-kstab.md) - [2.4.10 End of Topic Test - Transition Metals](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-10-end-of-topic-test-transition-metals.md) - [2.4.11 A-A* (AO2/3) - Transition Metals](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-4-11-a-a-ao23-transition-metals.md) - 2.5 Nitrogen & Sulfur - [2.5.1 Nitrogen & Ammonia](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-5-1-nitrogen-and-ammonia.md) - [2.5.2 Formulated vs Manure Fertilisers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-5-2-formulated-vs-manure-fertilisers.md) - [2.5.3 Nitrogen Containing Fertilisers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-5-3-nitrogen-containing-fertilisers.md) - [2.5.4 Fertilizers & Eutrophication](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-5-4-fertilizers-and-eutrophication.md) - [2.5.5 Common Atmospheric Pollutants & Their Properties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-5-5-common-atmospheric-pollutants-and-their-properties.md) - [2.5.6 Catalytic Converters](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-5-6-catalytic-converters.md) - [2.5.7 Atmospheric Oxides](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/2-5-7-atmospheric-oxides.md) ### 3 Organic Chemistry & Analysis - 3.1 Introduction to Organic Chemistry - [3.1.1 Naming Conventions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-1-1-naming-conventions.md) - [3.1.2 Mechanism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-1-2-mechanism.md) - [3.1.3 Isomerism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-1-3-isomerism.md) - [3.1.4 End of Topic Test - Introduction to Organic Chem](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-1-4-end-of-topic-test-introduction-to-organic-chem.md) - 3.2 Hydrocarbons - [3.2.1 Fractional Distillation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-1-fractional-distillation.md) - [3.2.2 Cracking](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-2-cracking.md) - [3.2.3 Combustion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-3-combustion.md) - [3.2.4 Chlorination](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-4-chlorination.md) - [3.2.5 End of Topic Test - Alkanes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-5-end-of-topic-test-alkanes.md) - [3.2.6 Introduction to Alkenes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-6-introduction-to-alkenes.md) - [3.2.7 Reactions of Alkenes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-7-reactions-of-alkenes.md) - [3.2.8 Polymerisation Reactions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-8-polymerisation-reactions.md) - [3.2.9 End of Topic Test - Alkenes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-9-end-of-topic-test-alkenes.md) - [3.2.10 Arenes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-10-arenes.md) - [3.2.11 Evidence for Structure of Arenes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-11-evidence-for-structure-of-arenes.md) - [3.2.12 Reactions of Benzene](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-12-reactions-of-benzene.md) - [3.2.13 End of Topic Test -Arenes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-2-13-end-of-topic-test-arenes.md) - 3.3 Halogen Derivatives - [3.3.1 Properties of Haloalkanes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-3-1-properties-of-haloalkanes.md) - [3.3.2 Substitution Reactions of Haloalkanes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-3-2-substitution-reactions-of-haloalkanes.md) - [3.3.3 Environmental Impacts of Haloalkanes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-3-3-environmental-impacts-of-haloalkanes.md) - [3.3.4 End of Topic Test - Halogenoalkanes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-3-4-end-of-topic-test-halogenoalkanes.md) - 3.4 Hydroxy Compounds - [3.4.1 Types of Alcohol](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-4-1-types-of-alcohol.md) - [3.4.2 Oxidation 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-4-2-oxidation-1.md) - [3.4.3 Oxidation 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-4-3-oxidation-2.md) - [3.4.4 Elimination](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-4-4-elimination.md) - [3.4.5 Acids & Esters](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-4-5-acids-and-esters.md) - [3.4.6 Acyl Chlorides & Acylation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-4-6-acyl-chlorides-and-acylation.md) - [3.4.7 Phenols & Their Reactions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-4-7-phenols-and-their-reactions.md) - [3.4.8 End of Topic Test - Alcohols](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-4-8-end-of-topic-test-alcohols.md) - 3.5 Carbonyl Compounds - [3.5.1 Carbonyls](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-5-1-carbonyls.md) - [3.5.2 Hydrogen Bonding & Carbonyls](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-5-2-hydrogen-bonding-and-carbonyls.md) - [3.5.3 Aldehydes & Ketones](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-5-3-aldehydes-and-ketones.md) - [3.5.4 Tri-Iodomethane Reaction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-5-4-tri-iodomethane-reaction.md) - [3.5.5 End of Topic Test -Carbonyls](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-5-5-end-of-topic-test-carbonyls.md) - 3.6 Carboxylic Acids & Derivatives - [3.6.1 Properties of Carboxylic Acids](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-6-1-properties-of-carboxylic-acids.md) - [3.6.2 Esters](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-6-2-esters.md) - [3.6.3 Acyl Chlorides](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-6-3-acyl-chlorides.md) - [3.6.4 End of Topic Test - Carboxylic Acids](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-6-4-end-of-topic-test-carboxylic-acids.md) - 3.7 Nitrogen Compounds - [3.7.1 Nature & Preparation of Amines](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-7-1-nature-and-preparation-of-amines.md) - [3.7.2 Basicity & Nucleophilicity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-7-2-basicity-and-nucleophilicity.md) - [3.7.3 Amides](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-7-3-amides.md) - [3.7.4 Reactions of Amino Acids](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-7-4-reactions-of-amino-acids.md) - [3.7.5 Amino Acids](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-7-5-amino-acids.md) - 3.8 Polymerisation - [3.8.1 Properties of Addition Polymers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-8-1-properties-of-addition-polymers.md) - [3.8.2 Condensation Polymerisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-8-2-condensation-polymerisation.md) - [3.8.3 Effects of Side-Chains on Polymers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-8-3-effects-of-side-chains-on-polymers.md) - [3.8.4 Hydrolysis of Ester & Amide Groups](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-8-4-hydrolysis-of-ester-and-amide-groups.md) - [3.8.5 Proteins](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-8-5-proteins.md) - [3.8.6 DNA](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-8-6-dna.md) - [3.8.7 Adhesive & Conducting Polymers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-8-7-adhesive-and-conducting-polymers.md) - [3.8.8 End of Topic Test - Amines & Proteins](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-8-8-end-of-topic-test-amines-and-proteins.md) - 3.9 Analytical Techniques - [3.9.1 Chromatography](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-1-chromatography.md) - [3.9.2 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-2-high-performance-liquid-chromatography.md) - [3.9.3 Gas Chromatography](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-3-gas-chromatography.md) - [3.9.4 IR Spectroscopy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-4-ir-spectroscopy.md) - [3.9.5 Uses of IR Spectroscopy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-5-uses-of-ir-spectroscopy.md) - [3.9.6 Mass Spectrometry](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-6-mass-spectrometry.md) - [3.9.7 Mass Spectrometry Analysis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-7-mass-spectrometry-analysis.md) - [3.9.8 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-8-nuclear-magnetic-resonance.md) - [3.9.9 Carbon-13 NMR](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-9-carbon-13-nmr.md) - [3.9.10 Proton NMR I](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-10-proton-nmr-i.md) - [3.9.11 Proton NMR II](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-11-proton-nmr-ii.md) - [3.9.12 End of Topic Test - Analytical Techniques](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-12-end-of-topic-test-analytical-techniques.md) - [3.9.13 A-A* (AO2/3) - Analytical Techniques](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-9-13-a-a-ao23-analytical-techniques.md) - 3.10 Organic Synthesis - [3.10.1 Chirality & Drug Synthesis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-10-1-chirality-and-drug-synthesis.md) - [3.10.2 Organic Synthesis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-10-2-organic-synthesis.md) - [3.10.3 Examples of Synthetic Routes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-10-3-examples-of-synthetic-routes.md) - [3.10.4 End of Topic Test - Organic Synthesis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/chemistry/cambridge-international/3-10-4-end-of-topic-test-organic-synthesis.md)