Source: https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/11-2-2-monoclonal-antibodies

[Revision notes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes.md) › [International A Level](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level.md) › [Biology](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology.md) › [Cambridge International](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international.md) › Monoclonal Antibodies

# Monoclonal Antibodies

Biology: Cambridge International A Level, topic 11.2.2

## Monoclonal Antibodies

Monoclonal antibodies are produced from clones (genetically identical copies) of cells (often white blood cells). They are all identical and are complementary to one type of antigen (proteins found on the surface of pathogens).

### Target specific cells/chemicals

![Target specific cells/chemicals](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/biology/3.2.1%20Monoclonal%20antibodies/sniper-327432_640-min%20-%20Edited.jpg)

- Monoclonal antibodies are specific to one binding site (area) on one protein antigen (on the surface of cells). 
- This means that monoclonal antibodies target specific chemicals or cells in the body.

## Uses of Monoclonal Antibodies

Monoclonal antibodies can be used in different ways. However, they may cause side effects such as fevers, low blood pressure and vomiting when used to treat patients.  Because of these side effects, monoclonal antibodies are used less commonly than people first expected.

### Pregnancy tests

![Pregnancy tests](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/biology/3.2.1%20Monoclonal%20antibodies/pregnant.jpg)

- Pregnant women produce a hormone called HCG. 
- Monoclonal antibodies can be used in pregnancy tests to bind (attach) to the HCG hormone’s antigens. 
- If the urine contains HCG, the antibodies bind and this shows that the person is pregnant. 
- If the urine does not contain HCG, then the antibodies will not bind to the HCG, showing a negative result.

### Identifying chemicals in the blood

![Identifying chemicals in the blood](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/biology/1.3.1%20Diffusion%20and%20active%20transport/blood-1813410_640-min.jpg)

- Since monoclonal antibodies are specific to one antigen, they can be designed (created) to identify (find) specific chemicals in the blood. 
- For example, they can:
 - Identify particular molecules in a tissue or cell by binding to them with a fluorescent dye. Areas in the body with lots of these molecules can be highlighted using the dye. 
 - Identify the levels of hormones in the blood.
 - Be used to test blood samples for pathogens, such as HIV.

### Treating diseases

![Treating diseases](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/biology/3.2.1%20Monoclonal%20antibodies/doctor-840127_640-min.jpg)

- Monoclonal antibodies can be produced to bind (attach) to target cells in the body, e.g. cancer cells. 
- We can attach anti-cancer drugs to the monoclonal antibodies. When they bind to the cancer cells, they can deliver the drugs directly to the tumours. 
- This is an effective cancer treatment because the antibodies cannot bind to or damage any normal human body cells (because normal cells will not have the complementary antigens).

## Test yourself on Monoclonal Antibodies

- Monoclonal antibodies are specific to how many binding sites (areas) on a protein antigen?
- Producing Monoclonal Antibodies
- What are lymphocytes?
- Which of these is NOT a common side effect of monoclonal antibodies?

[Practise this topic for free](https://app.senecalearning.com/classroom/course/8d1a05c1-df92-4b13-9a69-b60acc7af79a/section/cf963a97-252a-42ac-9505-4f224a246a0e/session)

- Previous topic: [11.2.1 Antibodies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/11-2-1-antibodies.md)
- Next topic: [11.2.3 Immunity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/11-2-3-immunity.md)

## Biology: Cambridge International A Level contents

### 1 Cell Structure
- 1.1 Cell Structure
  - [1.1.1 Studying Cells - Microscopes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/1-1-1-studying-cells-microscopes.md)
  - [1.1.2 Introduction to Eukaryotic & Prokaryotic Cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/1-1-2-introduction-to-eukaryotic-and-prokaryotic-cells.md)
  - [1.1.3 Ultrastructure of Eukaryotic Cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/1-1-3-ultrastructure-of-eukaryotic-cells.md)
  - [1.1.4 Ultrastructure of Eukaryotic Cells 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/1-1-4-ultrastructure-of-eukaryotic-cells-2.md)
  - [1.1.5 Ultrastructure of Eukaryotic Cells 3](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/1-1-5-ultrastructure-of-eukaryotic-cells-3.md)
  - [1.1.6 Prokaryotic Cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/1-1-6-prokaryotic-cells.md)
  - [1.1.7 Viruses](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/1-1-7-viruses.md)
  - [1.1.8 End of Topic Test - Cell Structure](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/1-1-8-end-of-topic-test-cell-structure.md)
  - [1.1.9 Exam-Style Question - Microscopes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/1-1-9-exam-style-question-microscopes.md)
  - [1.1.10 A-A* (AO2/3) - Cell Structure](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/1-1-10-a-a-ao23-cell-structure.md)

### 2 Biological Molecules
- 2.1 Testing for Biological Modules
  - [2.1.1 Tests for Sugars & Starch](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/2-1-1-tests-for-sugars-and-starch.md)
  - [2.1.2 Tests for Lipids & Proteins](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/2-1-2-tests-for-lipids-and-proteins.md)
- 2.2 Carbohydrates & Lipids
  - [2.2.1 Monomers & Polymers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/2-2-1-monomers-and-polymers.md)
  - [2.2.2 Carbohydrates](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/2-2-2-carbohydrates.md)
  - [2.2.3 Examples of Carbohydrates](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/2-2-3-examples-of-carbohydrates.md)
  - [2.2.4 Triglycerides & Phospholipids](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/2-2-4-triglycerides-and-phospholipids.md)
  - [2.2.5 Types of Fatty Acids](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/2-2-5-types-of-fatty-acids.md)
  - [2.2.6 Exam-Style Question - Carbohydrates](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/2-2-6-exam-style-question-carbohydrates.md)
  - [2.2.7 End of Topic Test - Carbohydrates & Lipids](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/2-2-7-end-of-topic-test-carbohydrates-and-lipids.md)
- 2.3 Proteins
  - [2.3.1 Amino Acids & Overview of Protein Structure](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/2-3-1-amino-acids-and-overview-of-protein-structure.md)
  - [2.3.2 Primary & Secondary Structure](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/2-3-2-primary-and-secondary-structure.md)
  - [2.3.3 Tertiary & Quaternary Structure](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/2-3-3-tertiary-and-quaternary-structure.md)
  - [2.3.4 Globular & Fibrous Proteins](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/2-3-4-globular-and-fibrous-proteins.md)
  - [2.3.5 Haemoglobin](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/2-3-5-haemoglobin.md)
  - [2.3.6 Collagen](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/2-3-6-collagen.md)
  - [2.3.7 End of Topic Test  - Proteins](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/2-3-7-end-of-topic-test-proteins.md)
- 2.4 Water
  - [2.4.1 Water Structure & Function](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/2-4-1-water-structure-and-function.md)
  - [2.4.2 End of Topic Test - Water](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/2-4-2-end-of-topic-test-water.md)

### 3 Enzymes
- 3.1 Enzymes
  - [3.1.1 Enzyme Action](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/3-1-1-enzyme-action.md)
  - [3.1.2 Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/3-1-2-factors-affecting-enzyme-activity.md)
  - [3.1.3 Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/3-1-3-factors-affecting-enzyme-activity-2.md)
  - [3.1.4 A-A* (AO2/3) - Enzymes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/3-1-4-a-a-ao23-enzymes.md)

### 4 Cell Membranes & Transport
- 4.1 Biological Membranes
  - [4.1.1 Fluid Mosaic Model](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/4-1-1-fluid-mosaic-model.md)
  - [4.1.2 Cell Signalling](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/4-1-2-cell-signalling.md)
  - [4.1.3 End of Topic Test - Biological Membranes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/4-1-3-end-of-topic-test-biological-membranes.md)
  - [4.1.4 Exam-Style Question - Membranes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/4-1-4-exam-style-question-membranes.md)
- 4.2 Movement Into & Out of Cells
  - [4.2.1 Passive Movement Across the Membrane](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/4-2-1-passive-movement-across-the-membrane.md)
  - [4.2.2 Active Movement Across the Membrane](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/4-2-2-active-movement-across-the-membrane.md)
  - [4.2.3 Osmosis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/4-2-3-osmosis.md)
  - [4.2.4 Osmosis & Plant Cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/4-2-4-osmosis-and-plant-cells.md)
  - [4.2.5 Surface Area to Volume Ratio](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/4-2-5-surface-area-to-volume-ratio.md)
  - [4.2.6 Adaptions to Surface Area to Volume Ratio](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/4-2-6-adaptions-to-surface-area-to-volume-ratio.md)
  - [4.2.7 Calculations - Volume](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/4-2-7-calculations-volume.md)
  - [4.2.8 Calculations - Surface Area](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/4-2-8-calculations-surface-area.md)

### 5 The Mitotic Cell Cycle
- 5.1 Replication & Division of Nuclei
  - [5.1.1 Chromosomes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/5-1-1-chromosomes.md)
  - [5.1.2 The Cell Cycle](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/5-1-2-the-cell-cycle.md)
  - [5.1.3 Mitosis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/5-1-3-mitosis.md)
  - [5.1.4 Role of Mitosis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/5-1-4-role-of-mitosis.md)
  - [5.1.5 Stem Cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/5-1-5-stem-cells.md)
  - [5.1.6 Mitosis & Cancer](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/5-1-6-mitosis-and-cancer.md)
  - [5.1.7 End of Topic Test - Replication & Division](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/5-1-7-end-of-topic-test-replication-and-division.md)
  - [5.1.8 A-A* (AO2/3) - Cell Cycle & Transport](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/5-1-8-a-a-ao23-cell-cycle-and-transport.md)

### 6 Nucleic Acids & Protein Synthesis
- 6.1 Nucleic Acids
  - [6.1.1 Introduction to DNA & RNA](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/6-1-1-introduction-to-dna-and-rna.md)
  - [6.1.2 Nucleotides](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/6-1-2-nucleotides.md)
  - [6.1.3 Polynucleotides](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/6-1-3-polynucleotides.md)
  - [6.1.4 ADP & ATP](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/6-1-4-adp-and-atp.md)
  - [6.1.5 DNA](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/6-1-5-dna.md)
  - [6.1.6 DNA Replication](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/6-1-6-dna-replication.md)
  - [6.1.7 RNA](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/6-1-7-rna.md)
  - [6.1.8 End of Topic Test - Nucleic Acids & ATP](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/6-1-8-end-of-topic-test-nucleic-acids-and-atp.md)
- 6.2 Protein Synthesis
  - [6.2.1 The Genetic Code](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/6-2-1-the-genetic-code.md)
  - [6.2.2 Polypeptide Synthesis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/6-2-2-polypeptide-synthesis.md)
  - [6.2.3 RNA Processing in Eukaryotes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/6-2-3-rna-processing-in-eukaryotes.md)
  - [6.2.4 Mutations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/6-2-4-mutations.md)
  - [6.2.5 Exam-Style Question - Protein Synthesis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/6-2-5-exam-style-question-protein-synthesis.md)
  - [6.2.6 A-A* (AO2/3) - Coronavirus Translation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/6-2-6-a-a-ao23-coronavirus-translation.md)

### 7 Transport in Plants
- 7.1 Transport in Plants
  - [7.1.1 Plant Vessels](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/7-1-1-plant-vessels.md)
  - [7.1.2 Xylem](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/7-1-2-xylem.md)
  - [7.1.3 Investigating Transpiration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/7-1-3-investigating-transpiration.md)
  - [7.1.4 Adaptations to Water Availability](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/7-1-4-adaptations-to-water-availability.md)
  - [7.1.5 Phloem](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/7-1-5-phloem.md)
  - [7.1.6 End of Topic Test - Transport in Animals & Plants](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/7-1-6-end-of-topic-test-transport-in-animals-and-plants.md)
  - [7.1.7 A-A* (AO2/3) - Transport in Animals & Plants](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/7-1-7-a-a-ao23-transport-in-animals-and-plants.md)

### 8 Transport in Mammals
- 8.1 Circulatory System
  - [8.1.1 Double Circulation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/8-1-1-double-circulation.md)
  - [8.1.2 Blood Vessels](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/8-1-2-blood-vessels.md)
  - [8.1.3 Important Blood Vessels](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/8-1-3-important-blood-vessels.md)
  - [8.1.4 Blood Cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/8-1-4-blood-cells.md)
  - [8.1.5 Tissue Fluid](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/8-1-5-tissue-fluid.md)
- 8.2 Transport of Oxygen & Carbon Dioxide
  - [8.2.1 Haemoglobin](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/8-2-1-haemoglobin.md)
  - [8.2.2 Oxygen Dissociation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/8-2-2-oxygen-dissociation.md)
- 8.3 The Heart
  - [8.3.1 Structure of the Heart](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/8-3-1-structure-of-the-heart.md)
  - [8.3.2 The Cardiac Cycle](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/8-3-2-the-cardiac-cycle.md)
  - [8.3.3 Coordination of Heart Action](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/8-3-3-coordination-of-heart-action.md)

### 9 Gas Exchange
- 9.1 Gas Exchange System
  - [9.1.1 Mammalian Gas Exchange](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/9-1-1-mammalian-gas-exchange.md)
  - [9.1.2 Smoking](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/9-1-2-smoking.md)

### 10 Infectious Diseases
- 10.1 Infectious Diseases
  - [10.1.1 Transmission of Disease](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/10-1-1-transmission-of-disease.md)
  - [10.1.2 Tuberculosis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/10-1-2-tuberculosis.md)
  - [10.1.3 HIV](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/10-1-3-hiv.md)
  - [10.1.4 Malaria](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/10-1-4-malaria.md)
  - [10.1.5 Cholera](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/10-1-5-cholera.md)
  - [10.1.6 Measles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/10-1-6-measles.md)
- 10.2 Antibiotics
  - [10.2.1 Antibiotics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/10-2-1-antibiotics.md)

### 11 Immunity
- 11.1 The Immune System
  - [11.1.1 Phagocytes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/11-1-1-phagocytes.md)
  - [11.1.2 Antigens](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/11-1-2-antigens.md)
  - [11.1.3 Lymphocytes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/11-1-3-lymphocytes.md)
  - [11.1.4 Primary & Secondary Response](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/11-1-4-primary-and-secondary-response.md)
- 11.2 Antibodies & Vaccination
  - [11.2.1 Antibodies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/11-2-1-antibodies.md)
  - [11.2.2 Monoclonal Antibodies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/11-2-2-monoclonal-antibodies.md)
  - [11.2.3 Immunity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/11-2-3-immunity.md)
  - [11.2.4 Vaccines](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/11-2-4-vaccines.md)
  - [11.2.5 Exam-Style Question - Immune System](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/11-2-5-exam-style-question-immune-system.md)
  - [11.2.6 A-A* (AO2/3) - Disease & Immune System](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/11-2-6-a-a-ao23-disease-and-immune-system.md)

### 12 Energy & Respiration (A2 Only)
- 12.1 Energy
  - [12.1.1 Energy & ATP](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/12-1-1-energy-and-atp.md)
  - [12.1.2 Respiratory Substrates & Quotient](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/12-1-2-respiratory-substrates-and-quotient.md)
  - [12.1.3 Respirometers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/12-1-3-respirometers.md)
- 12.2 Respiration
  - [12.2.1 Introduction to Respiration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/12-2-1-introduction-to-respiration.md)
  - [12.2.2 Anaerobic Respiration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/12-2-2-anaerobic-respiration.md)
  - [12.2.3 Aerobic Respiration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/12-2-3-aerobic-respiration.md)
  - [12.2.4 Chemiosmosis & Coenzymes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/12-2-4-chemiosmosis-and-coenzymes.md)
  - [12.2.5 Mitochondria](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/12-2-5-mitochondria.md)
  - [12.2.6 Respiration Experiments](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/12-2-6-respiration-experiments.md)
  - [12.2.7 End of Topic Test - Respiration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/12-2-7-end-of-topic-test-respiration.md)
  - [12.2.8 A-A* (AO3/4) - Respiration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/12-2-8-a-a-ao34-respiration.md)

### 13 Photosynthesis (A2 Only)
- 13.1 Photosynthesis
  - [13.1.1 Introduction to Photosynthesis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/13-1-1-introduction-to-photosynthesis.md)
  - [13.1.2 Light-Dependent Reactions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/13-1-2-light-dependent-reactions.md)
  - [13.1.3 Light-Independent Reactions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/13-1-3-light-independent-reactions.md)
  - [13.1.4 Limiting Factors](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/13-1-4-limiting-factors.md)
  - [13.1.5 Investigating Photosynthesis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/13-1-5-investigating-photosynthesis.md)
  - [13.1.6 End of Topic Test - Photosynthesis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/13-1-6-end-of-topic-test-photosynthesis.md)
  - [13.1.7 A-A* (AO3/4) - Photosynthesis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/13-1-7-a-a-ao34-photosynthesis.md)

### 14 Homeostasis (A2 Only)
- 14.1 Homeostasis
  - [14.1.1 Homeostasis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/14-1-1-homeostasis.md)
  - [14.1.2 Negative Feedback](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/14-1-2-negative-feedback.md)
- 14.2 The Kidney
  - [14.2.1 Kidneys & Osmoregulation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/14-2-1-kidneys-and-osmoregulation.md)
- 14.3 Cell Signalling
  - [14.3.1 Messengers & cAMP](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/14-3-1-messengers-and-camp.md)
- 14.4 Blood Glucose Concentration
  - [14.4.1 Blood Glucose Concentration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/14-4-1-blood-glucose-concentration.md)
  - [14.4.2 Controlling Blood Glucose](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/14-4-2-controlling-blood-glucose.md)
  - [14.4.3 Urinalysis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/14-4-3-urinalysis.md)
- 14.5 Homeostasis in Plants
  - [14.5.1 Stomata & Guard Cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/14-5-1-stomata-and-guard-cells.md)

### 15 Control & Coordination (A2 Only)
- 15.1 Control & Coordination in Mammals
  - [15.1.1 Neurones](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/15-1-1-neurones.md)
  - [15.1.2 Receptors](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/15-1-2-receptors.md)
  - [15.1.3 Taste](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/15-1-3-taste.md)
  - [15.1.4 Reflexes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/15-1-4-reflexes.md)
  - [15.1.5 Action Potentials](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/15-1-5-action-potentials.md)
  - [15.1.6 Saltatory Conduction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/15-1-6-saltatory-conduction.md)
  - [15.1.7 Synapses](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/15-1-7-synapses.md)
  - [15.1.8 Cholinergic Synnapses](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/15-1-8-cholinergic-synnapses.md)
  - [15.1.9 Neuromuscular Junction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/15-1-9-neuromuscular-junction.md)
  - [15.1.10 Skeletal Muscle](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/15-1-10-skeletal-muscle.md)
  - [15.1.11 Sliding Filament Theory Contraction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/15-1-11-sliding-filament-theory-contraction.md)
  - [15.1.12 Sliding Filament Theory Contraction 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/15-1-12-sliding-filament-theory-contraction-2.md)
  - [15.1.13 Menstruation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/15-1-13-menstruation.md)
  - [15.1.14 Contraceptive Pill](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/15-1-14-contraceptive-pill.md)
- 15.2 Control & Co-Ordination in Plants
  - [15.2.1 Venus Flytrap](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/15-2-1-venus-flytrap.md)
  - [15.2.2 Auixns](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/15-2-2-auixns.md)
  - [15.2.3 Gibberellins](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/15-2-3-gibberellins.md)

### 16 Inherited Change (A2 Only)
- 16.1 Passage of Information to Offspring
  - [16.1.1 Meiosis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/16-1-1-meiosis.md)
  - [16.1.2 Gametogenesis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/16-1-2-gametogenesis.md)
  - [16.1.3 Meiosis & Genetic Diversity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/16-1-3-meiosis-and-genetic-diversity.md)
- 16.2 Genes & Phenotype
  - [16.2.1 Key Terms in Genetics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/16-2-1-key-terms-in-genetics.md)
  - [16.2.2 Inheritance](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/16-2-2-inheritance.md)
  - [16.2.3 Linkage](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/16-2-3-linkage.md)
  - [16.2.4 Multiple Alleles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/16-2-4-multiple-alleles.md)
  - [16.2.5 Chi-Squared Test](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/16-2-5-chi-squared-test.md)
  - [16.2.6 Mutations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/16-2-6-mutations.md)
  - [16.2.7 Specific Mutations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/16-2-7-specific-mutations.md)
  - [16.2.8 End of Topic Test - Genetics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/16-2-8-end-of-topic-test-genetics.md)
  - [16.2.9 A-A* (AO2/3) - Genetics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/16-2-9-a-a-ao23-genetics.md)
- 16.3 Gene Control
  - [16.3.1 lac Operon](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/16-3-1-lac-operon.md)
  - [16.3.2 Transcription Factors](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/16-3-2-transcription-factors.md)
  - [16.3.3 Gibberellins & DELLA Proteins](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/16-3-3-gibberellins-and-della-proteins.md)

### 17 Selection & Evolution (A2 Only)
- 17.1 Variation
  - [17.1.1 Phenotypic Variation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/17-1-1-phenotypic-variation.md)
  - [17.1.2 Continuous & Discontinuous Variation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/17-1-2-continuous-and-discontinuous-variation.md)
  - [17.1.3 t-Tests](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/17-1-3-t-tests.md)
- 17.2 Natural & Artificial Selection
  - [17.2.1 Natural Selection & Evolution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/17-2-1-natural-selection-and-evolution.md)
  - [17.2.2 Types of Selection](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/17-2-2-types-of-selection.md)
  - [17.2.3 Types of Selection Summary](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/17-2-3-types-of-selection-summary.md)
  - [17.2.4 Genetic Drift & Founder Effect](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/17-2-4-genetic-drift-and-founder-effect.md)
  - [17.2.5 Populations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/17-2-5-populations.md)
  - [17.2.6 Hardy-Weinberg Principle](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/17-2-6-hardy-weinberg-principle.md)
  - [17.2.7 Artificial Selection](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/17-2-7-artificial-selection.md)
- 17.3 Evolution
  - [17.3.1 Evolution by Natural Selection](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/17-3-1-evolution-by-natural-selection.md)
  - [17.3.2 Evidence for Evolution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/17-3-2-evidence-for-evolution.md)
  - [17.3.3 Speciation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/17-3-3-speciation.md)
  - [17.3.4 Extinction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/17-3-4-extinction.md)

### 18 Classification & Conservation (A2 Only)
- 18.1 Biodiversity
  - [18.1.1 Key Terms](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/18-1-1-key-terms.md)
  - [18.1.2 Biodiversity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/18-1-2-biodiversity.md)
  - [18.1.3 Sampling Methods](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/18-1-3-sampling-methods.md)
  - [18.1.4 Correlation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/18-1-4-correlation.md)
  - [18.1.5 Spearman’s Rank](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/18-1-5-spearmans-rank.md)
  - [18.1.6 Measuring Biodiversity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/18-1-6-measuring-biodiversity.md)
- 18.2 Classification
  - [18.2.1 3-Domain Classification System](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/18-2-1-3-domain-classification-system.md)
  - [18.2.2 Linnaean Classification System](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/18-2-2-linnaean-classification-system.md)
- 18.3 Conservation
  - [18.3.1 Importance of Biodiversity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/18-3-1-importance-of-biodiversity.md)
  - [18.3.2 Conservation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/18-3-2-conservation.md)
  - [18.3.3 Zoos, Seedbanks, & Other Conservation Methods](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/18-3-3-zoos-seedbanks-and-other-conservation-methods.md)
  - [18.3.4 Assisted Reproduction & Contraception](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/18-3-4-assisted-reproduction-and-contraception.md)
  - [18.3.5 Non-Governmental Organisations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/18-3-5-non-governmental-organisations.md)

### 19 Genetic Technology (A2 Only)
- 19.1 Manipulating Genomes
  - [19.1.1 Recombinant DNA & Genetic Engineering](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/19-1-1-recombinant-dna-and-genetic-engineering.md)
  - [19.1.2 Restriction Endonucleases](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/19-1-2-restriction-endonucleases.md)
  - [19.1.3 Gel Electrophoresis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/19-1-3-gel-electrophoresis.md)
  - [19.1.4 DNA Probes & Microarrays](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/19-1-4-dna-probes-and-microarrays.md)
  - [19.1.5 End of Topic Test - Manipulating Genomes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/19-1-5-end-of-topic-test-manipulating-genomes.md)
  - [19.1.6 A-A* (AO2/3) - Manipulating Genomes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/19-1-6-a-a-ao23-manipulating-genomes.md)
- 19.2 Genetic Technology Applied to Medicine
  - [19.2.1 Bioinformatics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/19-2-1-bioinformatics.md)
  - [19.2.2 Applications of Recombinant DNA](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/19-2-2-applications-of-recombinant-dna.md)
  - [19.2.3 Genetic Screening](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/19-2-3-genetic-screening.md)
  - [19.2.4 Gene Therapy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/19-2-4-gene-therapy.md)
  - [19.2.5 Ethics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/19-2-5-ethics.md)
  - [19.2.6 DNA Profiling & Forensics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/19-2-6-dna-profiling-and-forensics.md)
- 19.3 Genetically Modified Organisms in Agriculture
  - [19.3.1 GM Crops & Livestock](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/19-3-1-gm-crops-and-livestock.md)
  - [19.3.2 Ethics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/international-a-level/biology/cambridge-international/19-3-2-ethics.md)