Source: https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/2-2-6-tundra [Revision notes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes.md) › [IGCSE](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse.md) › [Geography](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography.md) › [Edexcel IGCSE](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse.md) › Tundra # Tundra Geography: Edexcel IGCSE, topic 2.2.6 ## Overview of Tundra Tundra have the following general characteristics: ### Where are tundra biomes? ![Where are tundra biomes?](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/600436f3-cb69-4930-b22e-eb3aec0e148c/sunset-snow-alaska-.jpg) - Alaska, Finland, and Siberia are examples of tundra biomes. ### What is the tundra climate like? ![What is the tundra climate like?](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-04/f5ec4a64-4825-4dd8-8bc2-358a8936bab6/shutterstock_392296921.jpg) - Temperatures in tundra biomes are very low: - Tundra regions are always colder than 10oC and in the winter average about -35oC. - Levels of rainfall are low in both polar and tundra regions, but it rains more in tundra regions. - There are four different seasons in the tundra biome. ### What is the soil like in tundra biomes? ![What is the soil like in tundra biomes?](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-04/9d3ad9ac-3e71-4777-905c-12e6e07f436e/shutterstock_49844932.jpg) - In tundra regions, permafrost covers the ground with a tiny layer of infertile, acidic soil on top of it. ### Which plants live in tundra environments? ![Which plants live in tundra environments?](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-04/23cf73dd-36d4-4034-8eb5-fe82f30bab84/shutterstock_99314225.jpg) - Plant life is rare in tundra regions. - The same plants exist in tundra regions but can grow more, such as grasses, shrubs, and flowering plants. Some trees are able to survive in the tundra. ### Which animals live in the tundra environments? ![Which animals live in the tundra environments?](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-04/dd00a572-07bf-4161-98c8-7e446ce5fa0b/shutterstock_630373091.jpg) - In the tundra, there is a little more biodiversity than in polar regions, with animals like wolves, small mammals (like the Arctic fox and Arctic hare), reindeer, owls, and mountain goats. ### People ![People](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-04/fd8c5610-2ed7-4714-849b-cf49ba5a13cb/shutterstock_145314475.jpg) - Nobody lives permanently in Antarctica. But some scientists do stay there for stints to do research. - Very few people live in polar or tundra regions. - The indigenous Inuit people live in the tundra in Canada and because of the fossil fuel supply, some people who work for oil companies like Shell or Exxon will work on oil fields in Canada or Siberia. ## Test yourself on Tundra - What do we call the layer of permanently frozen ground that is usually found beneath the soil in cold environments? [Practise this topic for free](https://app.senecalearning.com/classroom/course/ef6d2f62-5eb8-4168-aaaf-48efdb77968e/section/4b3ac31f-18d3-4673-a772-c190b15b635d/session) - Previous topic: [2.2.5 Deserts](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/2-2-5-deserts.md) - Next topic: [2.3.1 Urbanisation in Different Countries](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/2-3-1-urbanisation-in-different-countries.md) ## Geography: Edexcel IGCSE contents ### 1 Physical Geography - 1.1 River Environments - [1.1.1 Weathering](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-1-1-weathering.md) - [1.1.2 Mass Movement](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-1-2-mass-movement.md) - [1.1.3 Erosion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-1-3-erosion.md) - [1.1.4 Transportation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-1-4-transportation.md) - [1.1.5 Deposition](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-1-5-deposition.md) - [1.1.6 River Landforms: Waterfalls & Gorges](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-1-6-river-landforms-waterfalls-and-gorges.md) - [1.1.7 River Landforms: Interlocking Spurs](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-1-7-river-landforms-interlocking-spurs.md) - [1.1.8 River Landforms: Flood Plains](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-1-8-river-landforms-flood-plains.md) - [1.1.9 River Landforms: Point Bars](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-1-9-river-landforms-point-bars.md) - [1.1.10 River Landforms: Levees](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-1-10-river-landforms-levees.md) - [1.1.11 River Landforms: Meanders](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-1-11-river-landforms-meanders.md) - [1.1.12 River Landforms: Oxbow Lakes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-1-12-river-landforms-oxbow-lakes.md) - [1.1.13 River Landscape Changes: Long Profile](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-1-13-river-landscape-changes-long-profile.md) - [1.1.14 River Landscape Changes: Cross Profile](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-1-14-river-landscape-changes-cross-profile.md) - [1.1.15 Vertical & Lateral Erosion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-1-15-vertical-and-lateral-erosion.md) - [1.1.16 Flood Risk Factors](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-1-16-flood-risk-factors.md) - [1.1.17 Human Activities on Rivers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-1-17-human-activities-on-rivers.md) - [1.1.18 River Management: Hard Engineering](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-1-18-river-management-hard-engineering.md) - [1.1.19 River Management: Soft Engineering](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-1-19-river-management-soft-engineering.md) - [1.1.20 Case Study: The River Eden - Landforms](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-1-20-case-study-the-river-eden-landforms.md) - [1.1.21 Case Study: The River Eden - Climate](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-1-21-case-study-the-river-eden-climate.md) - [1.1.22 Case Study: The River Eden - Geology](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-1-22-case-study-the-river-eden-geology.md) - [1.1.23 Case Study: The River Eden - Management](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-1-23-case-study-the-river-eden-management.md) - [1.1.24 Case Study: The River Eden - Human Activity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-1-24-case-study-the-river-eden-human-activity.md) - [1.1.25 End of Topic Test - River Environments](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-1-25-end-of-topic-test-river-environments.md) - 1.2 Coastal Environments - [1.2.1 Weathering](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-2-1-weathering.md) - [1.2.2 Mass Movement](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-2-2-mass-movement.md) - [1.2.3 Erosion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-2-3-erosion.md) - [1.2.4 Deposition](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-2-4-deposition.md) - [1.2.5 Longshore Drift](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-2-5-longshore-drift.md) - [1.2.6 Sediment Transportation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-2-6-sediment-transportation.md) - [1.2.7 Wave Action on Coasts](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-2-7-wave-action-on-coasts.md) - [1.2.8 Other Factors Influencing Coasts](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-2-8-other-factors-influencing-coasts.md) - [1.2.9 Coastal Landforms: Wave-cut Platforms & Cliffs](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-2-9-coastal-landforms-wave-cut-platforms-and-cliffs.md) - [1.2.10 Coastal Landforms: Headlands & Bays](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-2-10-coastal-landforms-headlands-and-bays.md) - [1.2.11 Coastal Landforms: Caves, Arches & Stacks](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-2-11-coastal-landforms-caves-arches-and-stacks.md) - [1.2.12 Coastal Deposition](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-2-12-coastal-deposition.md) - [1.2.13 Spits, Bars & Sand Dunes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-2-13-spits-bars-and-sand-dunes.md) - [1.2.14 Human Activity on Coasts](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-2-14-human-activity-on-coasts.md) - [1.2.15 Coastal Defences: Hard Engineering](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-2-15-coastal-defences-hard-engineering.md) - [1.2.16 Coastal Defences: Soft Engineering](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-2-16-coastal-defences-soft-engineering.md) - [1.2.17 Coastal Defences: Managed Retreat](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-2-17-coastal-defences-managed-retreat.md) - [1.2.18 Case Study: Holderness Coast Overview](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-2-18-case-study-holderness-coast-overview.md) - [1.2.19 Case Study: Holderness Coast Management](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-2-19-case-study-holderness-coast-management.md) - [1.2.20 Case Study: Holderness Coast Defences](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-2-20-case-study-holderness-coast-defences.md) - [1.2.21 End of Topic Test - Coastal Environments](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-2-21-end-of-topic-test-coastal-environments.md) - 1.3 Hazardous Environments - Tropical Cyclones - [1.3.1 Characteristics of a Tropical Cyclone](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-3-1-characteristics-of-a-tropical-cyclone.md) - [1.3.2 Structure of a Tropical Cyclone](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-3-2-structure-of-a-tropical-cyclone.md) - [1.3.3 Physical Hazards of Tropical Cyclones](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-3-3-physical-hazards-of-tropical-cyclones.md) - [1.3.4 The Impacts of Tropical Cyclones](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-3-4-the-impacts-of-tropical-cyclones.md) - [1.3.5 Responses to Tropical Cyclones](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-3-5-responses-to-tropical-cyclones.md) - [1.3.6 Vulnerability to Tropical Cyclones](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-3-6-vulnerability-to-tropical-cyclones.md) - [1.3.7 Preparing for Tropical Cyclones](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-3-7-preparing-for-tropical-cyclones.md) - [1.3.8 Case Study: Katrina](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-3-8-case-study-katrina.md) - [1.3.9 Case Study: Nargis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-3-9-case-study-nargis.md) - 1.4 Hazardous Environments - Earthquakes & Volcanoes - [1.4.1 Earthquakes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-4-1-earthquakes.md) - [1.4.2 Features of an Earthquake](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-4-2-features-of-an-earthquake.md) - [1.4.3 Types of Earthquake](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-4-3-types-of-earthquake.md) - [1.4.4 Case Study: L'Aquila](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-4-4-case-study-laquila.md) - [1.4.5 Case Study: Chile](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-4-5-case-study-chile.md) - [1.4.6 Case Study: Japan & Pakistan - Planning](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-4-6-case-study-japan-and-pakistan-planning.md) - [1.4.7 Volcanoes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-4-7-volcanoes.md) - [1.4.8 Types of Volcanoes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-4-8-types-of-volcanoes.md) - [1.4.9 Volcanic Eruptions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/1-4-9-volcanic-eruptions.md) ### 2 Human Geography - 2.1 Economic Activity & Energy - [2.1.1 Increasing Energy Consumption](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/2-1-1-increasing-energy-consumption.md) - [2.1.2 Non-Renewable Energy - Nuclear](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/2-1-2-non-renewable-energy-nuclear.md) - [2.1.3 Non-Renewable Energy - Fossil Fuels](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/2-1-3-non-renewable-energy-fossil-fuels.md) - [2.1.4 Renewable Energy - Solar](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/2-1-4-renewable-energy-solar.md) - [2.1.5 Renewable Energy - Water & Bio](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/2-1-5-renewable-energy-water-and-bio.md) - [2.1.6 Renewable Energy - Hydro](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/2-1-6-renewable-energy-hydro.md) - [2.1.7 Energy - Statistical Skills](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/2-1-7-energy-statistical-skills.md) - 2.2 Rural Environments - [2.2.1 Rainforests](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/2-2-1-rainforests.md) - [2.2.2 Temperate Forests](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/2-2-2-temperate-forests.md) - [2.2.3 Characteristics of a Temperate Forest](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/2-2-3-characteristics-of-a-temperate-forest.md) - [2.2.4 Goods & Services in Temperate Forests](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/2-2-4-goods-and-services-in-temperate-forests.md) - [2.2.5 Deserts](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/2-2-5-deserts.md) - [2.2.6 Tundra](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/2-2-6-tundra.md) - 2.3 Urban Environments - [2.3.1 Urbanisation in Different Countries](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/2-3-1-urbanisation-in-different-countries.md) - [2.3.2 Causes of Urbanisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/2-3-2-causes-of-urbanisation.md) - [2.3.3 Consequences of Urbanisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/2-3-3-consequences-of-urbanisation.md) - [2.3.4 Sustainable Urbanisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/2-3-4-sustainable-urbanisation.md) - [2.3.5 Case Study: Rapid Urbanisation in Mexico City](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/2-3-5-case-study-rapid-urbanisation-in-mexico-city.md) - [2.3.6 End of Topic Test - Urbanisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/2-3-6-end-of-topic-test-urbanisation.md) ### 3 Global Issues - 3.1 Fragile Environments & Climate Change - [3.1.1 Natural Causes of Climate Change](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-1-1-natural-causes-of-climate-change.md) - [3.1.2 Effects of Climate Change on the Environment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-1-2-effects-of-climate-change-on-the-environment.md) - [3.1.3 Effects of Climate Change on People](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-1-3-effects-of-climate-change-on-people.md) - [3.1.4 Impacts of Deforestation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-1-4-impacts-of-deforestation.md) - [3.1.5 End of Topic Test - Climate Change](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-1-5-end-of-topic-test-climate-change.md) - [3.1.6 Increasing Water Supply](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-1-6-increasing-water-supply.md) - [3.1.7 Sustainable Rainforest Management](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-1-7-sustainable-rainforest-management.md) - 3.2 Globalisation & Migration - [3.2.1 Globalisation - Transport](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-2-1-globalisation-transport.md) - [3.2.2 Globalisation - Communication Networks & Banking](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-2-2-globalisation-communication-networks-and-banking.md) - [3.2.3 Push & Pull Factors](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-2-3-push-and-pull-factors.md) - [3.2.4 TNCs & Globalisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-2-4-tncs-and-globalisation.md) - [3.2.5 Tourism Landscapes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-2-5-tourism-landscapes.md) - [3.2.6 The Growth of Tourism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-2-6-the-growth-of-tourism.md) - [3.2.7 The Economic Benefits of Tourism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-2-7-the-economic-benefits-of-tourism.md) - [3.2.8 The Social & Cultural Benefits of Tourism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-2-8-the-social-and-cultural-benefits-of-tourism.md) - [3.2.9 The Economic Costs of Tourism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-2-9-the-economic-costs-of-tourism.md) - [3.2.10 The Social & Cultural Costs of Tourism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-2-10-the-social-and-cultural-costs-of-tourism.md) - [3.2.11 Managing Tourism - Sustainability](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-2-11-managing-tourism-sustainability.md) - [3.2.12 Managing Tourism - Quotas & Tourism Hubs](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-2-12-managing-tourism-quotas-and-tourism-hubs.md) - 3.3 Development & Human Welfare - [3.3.1 Ways of Defining Development](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-3-1-ways-of-defining-development.md) - [3.3.2 Different Ways of Measuring Development](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-3-2-different-ways-of-measuring-development.md) - [3.3.3 Environmental Factors Causing Uneven Development](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-3-3-environmental-factors-causing-uneven-development.md) - [3.3.4 Historical Factors Causing Uneven Development](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-3-4-historical-factors-causing-uneven-development.md) - [3.3.5 Economic Factors Causing Uneven Development](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-3-5-economic-factors-causing-uneven-development.md) - [3.3.6 Patterns of Development](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-3-6-patterns-of-development.md) - [3.3.7 How Can we Reduce the Global Development Gap?](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-3-7-how-can-we-reduce-the-global-development-gap.md) - [3.3.8 Top-Down & Bottom-Up Development](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/geography/edexcel-igcse/3-3-8-top-down-and-bottom-up-development.md)