Source: https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-1-1-respiration [Revision notes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes.md) › [IGCSE](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse.md) › [Biology](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology.md) › [Edexcel IGCSE](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse.md) › [Higher](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher.md) › Respiration # Respiration Biology: Edexcel IGCSE, topic 3.1.1 ## Respiration Respiration is an exothermic reaction (releases energy) that supplies all the energy needed by living organisms. This reaction happens continuously in all living cells. The reaction can be aerobic (with oxygen) or anaerobic (without oxygen). ### Aerobic respiration (with oxygen) ![Aerobic respiration (with oxygen)](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/biology/4.2.1-%20Respiration/sky-1441936_640-min.jpg) - In aerobic respiration, glucose reacts with oxygen in the mitochondria of cells to give carbon dioxide, water and energy. - Glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water (+ energy) - C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H20 (+ energy) ### Anaerobic respiration in animals ![Anaerobic respiration in animals](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/biology/4.2.1-%20Respiration/relay-race-655353_640-min.jpg) - Glucose is not broken down completely, making it a less efficient way of transferring energy than aerobic respiration. - In animals, glucose is converted to lactic acid: - Glucose → lactic acid - Anaerobic respiration happens when insufficient (not enough) oxygen reaches the muscles during periods of intense activity. ### Anaerobic respiration in plants ![Anaerobic respiration in plants](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/biology/4.2.1-%20Respiration/beer-2449887_640-min.jpg) - In plant and yeast cells, glucose is converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide. - Glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide - In yeast cells, this is called fermentation. This is an important step in the manufacture (making) of both bread and alcohol. ## Test yourself on Respiration - When there is not enough oxygen, what is glucose converted to in animal cells? [Practise this topic for free](https://app.senecalearning.com/classroom/course/e1a7eee0-26dc-11e8-8fe0-51e4f27b102c/section/977f1690-3c0d-11e8-ad6a-8b392f0be7bc/session) - Previous topic: [2.3.23 Exam-Style Questions - Enzymes & Digestion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-3-23-exam-style-questions-enzymes-and-digestion.md) - Next topic: [3.1.2 Aerobic and Anaerobic](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-1-2-aerobic-and-anaerobic.md) ## Biology: Edexcel IGCSE contents ### 1 The Nature & Variety of Living Organisms - 1.1 Characteristics of Living Organisms - [1.1.1 MRS GRENC](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/1-1-1-mrs-grenc.md) - [1.1.2 M.R.S.](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/1-1-2-mrs.md) - [1.1.3 G.R.E.N.C.](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/1-1-3-grenc.md) - 1.2 Variety of Living Organisms - [1.2.1 Types of Cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/1-2-1-types-of-cells.md) - [1.2.2 Properties of Prokaryotes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/1-2-2-properties-of-prokaryotes.md) - [1.2.3 Structure of Eukaryotic Cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/1-2-3-structure-of-eukaryotic-cells.md) - [1.2.4 Organisms: Animals & Plants](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/1-2-4-organisms-animals-and-plants.md) - [1.2.5 Other Kingdoms](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/1-2-5-other-kingdoms.md) - [1.2.6 Pathogens](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/1-2-6-pathogens.md) - [1.2.7 Viruses](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/1-2-7-viruses.md) ### 2 Structure & Functions in Living Organisms - 2.1 Organisation Structure - [2.1.1 Cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-1-1-cells.md) - [2.1.2 Tissues](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-1-2-tissues.md) - [2.1.3 Organs](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-1-3-organs.md) - [2.1.4 Organ Systems](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-1-4-organ-systems.md) - [2.1.5 Organisms](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-1-5-organisms.md) - [2.1.6 Animal cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-1-6-animal-cells.md) - [2.1.7 Plant cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-1-7-plant-cells.md) - [2.1.8 Cell Differentiation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-1-8-cell-differentiation.md) - [2.1.9 Stem Cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-1-9-stem-cells.md) - [2.1.10 Uses of Stem Cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-1-10-uses-of-stem-cells.md) - [2.1.11 Disadvantages of Stem Cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-1-11-disadvantages-of-stem-cells.md) - [2.1.12 End of Topic Test - Cell Types & Structures](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-1-12-end-of-topic-test-cell-types-and-structures.md) - [2.1.13 Exam-Style Questions - Cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-1-13-exam-style-questions-cells.md) - [2.1.14 Diffusion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-1-14-diffusion.md) - [2.1.15 Factors affecting Diffusion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-1-15-factors-affecting-diffusion.md) - [2.1.16 Surface Area to Volume Ratio](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-1-16-surface-area-to-volume-ratio.md) - [2.1.17 Diffusion - Experiment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-1-17-diffusion-experiment.md) - [2.1.18 Osmosis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-1-18-osmosis.md) - [2.1.19 Required Practical - Osmosis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-1-19-required-practical-osmosis.md) - [2.1.20 Active Transport](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-1-20-active-transport.md) - [2.1.21 Transport in Cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-1-21-transport-in-cells.md) - [2.1.22 End of Topic Test - Cell Transport](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-1-22-end-of-topic-test-cell-transport.md) - [2.1.23 Grade 9 - Cell Transport](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-1-23-grade-9-cell-transport.md) - [2.1.24 Exam-Style Questions - Substance Exchange](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-1-24-exam-style-questions-substance-exchange.md) - 2.2 Biological Molecules - [2.2.1 Chemical Elements](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-2-1-chemical-elements.md) - [2.2.2 Larger Molecules](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-2-2-larger-molecules.md) - [2.2.3 Required Practical - Food Testing](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-2-3-required-practical-food-testing.md) - [2.2.4 Enzymes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-2-4-enzymes.md) - [2.2.5 Rate of Enzyme Action](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-2-5-rate-of-enzyme-action.md) - [2.2.6 Investigating Effect of pH on Amylase](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-2-6-investigating-effect-of-ph-on-amylase.md) - [2.2.7 Grade 9 - Enzymes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-2-7-grade-9-enzymes.md) - 2.3 Nutrition - [2.3.1 Photosynthesis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-3-1-photosynthesis.md) - [2.3.2 Photosynthesis Equation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-3-2-photosynthesis-equation.md) - [2.3.3 Factors affecting Rate of Photosynthesis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-3-3-factors-affecting-rate-of-photosynthesis.md) - [2.3.4 Photosynthesis - Calculations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-3-4-photosynthesis-calculations.md) - [2.3.5 Investigating Photosynthesis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-3-5-investigating-photosynthesis.md) - [2.3.6 Testing Leaves for Starch](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-3-6-testing-leaves-for-starch.md) - [2.3.7 Grade 9 - Photosynthesis Experiment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-3-7-grade-9-photosynthesis-experiment.md) - [2.3.8 Exam-Style Questions - Rate of Photosynthesis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-3-8-exam-style-questions-rate-of-photosynthesis.md) - [2.3.9 Leaf Adaptations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-3-9-leaf-adaptations.md) - [2.3.10 Ion Deficiencies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-3-10-ion-deficiencies.md) - [2.3.11 Human Diet](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-3-11-human-diet.md) - [2.3.12 Vitamins and Minerals](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-3-12-vitamins-and-minerals.md) - [2.3.13 Dietary Needs](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-3-13-dietary-needs.md) - [2.3.14 Human Digestive System](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-3-14-human-digestive-system.md) - [2.3.15 Peristalsis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-3-15-peristalsis.md) - [2.3.16 Villi](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-3-16-villi.md) - [2.3.17 Digestive Enzymes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-3-17-digestive-enzymes.md) - [2.3.18 Amylase](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-3-18-amylase.md) - [2.3.19 Protease](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-3-19-protease.md) - [2.3.20 Lipase](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-3-20-lipase.md) - [2.3.21 Bile](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-3-21-bile.md) - [2.3.22 End of Topic Test - Enzymes & Nutririon](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-3-22-end-of-topic-test-enzymes-and-nutririon.md) - [2.3.23 Exam-Style Questions - Enzymes & Digestion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/2-3-23-exam-style-questions-enzymes-and-digestion.md) ### 3 Organism Functions - 3.1 Respiration - [3.1.1 Respiration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-1-1-respiration.md) - [3.1.2 Aerobic and Anaerobic](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-1-2-aerobic-and-anaerobic.md) - [3.1.3 Investigating Respiration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-1-3-investigating-respiration.md) - [3.1.4 End of Topic Test - Respiration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-1-4-end-of-topic-test-respiration.md) - 3.2 Gas Exchange - [3.2.1 Guard Cells & Stomata](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-2-1-guard-cells-and-stomata.md) - [3.2.2 States of Stomata](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-2-2-states-of-stomata.md) - [3.2.3 Plant Gas Exchange](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-2-3-plant-gas-exchange.md) - [3.2.4 Human Thorax](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-2-4-human-thorax.md) - [3.2.5 Breathing Process](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-2-5-breathing-process.md) - [3.2.6 Gas Exchange in Lungs](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-2-6-gas-exchange-in-lungs.md) - [3.2.7 Exchange Surfaces](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-2-7-exchange-surfaces.md) - [3.2.8 Alveoli](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-2-8-alveoli.md) - [3.2.9 Breath Composition](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-2-9-breath-composition.md) - [3.2.10 Exercise and Breathing](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-2-10-exercise-and-breathing.md) - [3.2.11 Smoking](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-2-11-smoking.md) - 3.3 Transport - [3.3.1 Surface Area to Volume Ratio](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-1-surface-area-to-volume-ratio.md) - [3.3.2 Exchange Surfaces](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-2-exchange-surfaces.md) - [3.3.3 Examples of Exchange Surfaces](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-3-examples-of-exchange-surfaces.md) - [3.3.4 Root Hair Cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-4-root-hair-cells.md) - [3.3.5 Transpiration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-5-transpiration.md) - [3.3.6 Rate of Transpiration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-6-rate-of-transpiration.md) - [3.3.7 Measuring Transpiration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-7-measuring-transpiration.md) - [3.3.8 Xylem](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-8-xylem.md) - [3.3.9 Translocation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-9-translocation.md) - [3.3.10 Blood Components](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-10-blood-components.md) - [3.3.11 Plasma](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-11-plasma.md) - [3.3.12 Red Blood Cell](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-12-red-blood-cell.md) - [3.3.13 Platelets](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-13-platelets.md) - [3.3.14 The Immune System](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-14-the-immune-system.md) - [3.3.15 Antibodies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-15-antibodies.md) - [3.3.16 Vaccination](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-16-vaccination.md) - [3.3.17 Types of Blood Vessel](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-17-types-of-blood-vessel.md) - [3.3.18 Blood Vessels - Arteries](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-18-blood-vessels-arteries.md) - [3.3.19 Blood Vessels - Veins](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-19-blood-vessels-veins.md) - [3.3.20 Blood Vessels - Capillaries](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-20-blood-vessels-capillaries.md) - [3.3.21 Function of the Heart](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-21-function-of-the-heart.md) - [3.3.22 Structure of the Heart](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-22-structure-of-the-heart.md) - [3.3.23 Heart Rate](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-23-heart-rate.md) - [3.3.24 Heart Disease](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-24-heart-disease.md) - [3.3.25 Double Circulatory System](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-25-double-circulatory-system.md) - [3.3.26 Important Blood Vessels](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-26-important-blood-vessels.md) - [3.3.27 End of Topic - Transport](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-27-end-of-topic-transport.md) - [3.3.28 Exam-Style Questions - The Heart](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-3-28-exam-style-questions-the-heart.md) - 3.4 Excretion - [3.4.1 Excretion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-4-1-excretion.md) - [3.4.2 Kidneys](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-4-2-kidneys.md) - [3.4.3 Urine Production](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-4-3-urine-production.md) - [3.4.4 Urinary System](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-4-4-urinary-system.md) - [3.4.5 Nephron](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-4-5-nephron.md) - [3.4.6 Water in Urine](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-4-6-water-in-urine.md) - 3.5 Coordination & Response - [3.5.1 Homeostasis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-1-homeostasis.md) - [3.5.2 Regulating Internal Conditions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-2-regulating-internal-conditions.md) - [3.5.3 Coordinated Responses](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-3-coordinated-responses.md) - [3.5.4 Types of Tropisms](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-4-types-of-tropisms.md) - [3.5.5 Auxin and Phototropism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-5-auxin-and-phototropism.md) - [3.5.6 Nervous System](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-6-nervous-system.md) - [3.5.7 Synapses](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-7-synapses.md) - [3.5.8 Reflex Actions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-8-reflex-actions.md) - [3.5.9 Reflex Arc](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-9-reflex-arc.md) - [3.5.10 Sense Organs](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-10-sense-organs.md) - [3.5.11 The Eye](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-11-the-eye.md) - [3.5.12 Eye - Focusing](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-12-eye-focusing.md) - [3.5.13 Eye - Adapting to Light](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-13-eye-adapting-to-light.md) - [3.5.14 Thermoregulation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-14-thermoregulation.md) - [3.5.15 Sweating and Shivering](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-15-sweating-and-shivering.md) - [3.5.16 Thermoregulation - Blood Vessels](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-16-thermoregulation-blood-vessels.md) - [3.5.17 Exam-Style Questions - Homeostasis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-17-exam-style-questions-homeostasis.md) - [3.5.18 Endocrine Glands](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-18-endocrine-glands.md) - [3.5.19 Hormones](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-19-hormones.md) - [3.5.20 Nervous vs Endocrine](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-20-nervous-vs-endocrine.md) - [3.5.21 Adrenaline](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-21-adrenaline.md) - [3.5.22 Glucose](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-22-glucose.md) - [3.5.23 Puberty](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-23-puberty.md) - [3.5.24 Menstruation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-24-menstruation.md) - [3.5.25 Menstrual Cycle](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-25-menstrual-cycle.md) - [3.5.26 Menstrual Hormones](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-26-menstrual-hormones.md) - [3.5.27 Grade 9 - Hormonal Coordination](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-27-grade-9-hormonal-coordination.md) - [3.5.28 End of Topic Test - Coordination & Response](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/3-5-28-end-of-topic-test-coordination-and-response.md) ### 4 Reproduction & Inheritance - 4.1 Reproduction - [4.1.1 Asexual Reproduction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-1-1-asexual-reproduction.md) - [4.1.2 Sexual Reproduction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-1-2-sexual-reproduction.md) - [4.1.3 Gamete vs Zygote](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-1-3-gamete-vs-zygote.md) - [4.1.4 Plant Reproduction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-1-4-plant-reproduction.md) - [4.1.5 Flower Anatomy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-1-5-flower-anatomy.md) - [4.1.6 Germination](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-1-6-germination.md) - [4.1.7 Pollination](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-1-7-pollination.md) - [4.1.8 Pollination Methods](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-1-8-pollination-methods.md) - [4.1.9 Male Reproductive System](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-1-9-male-reproductive-system.md) - [4.1.10 Female Reproductive System](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-1-10-female-reproductive-system.md) - [4.1.11 Pregnancy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-1-11-pregnancy.md) - [4.1.12 Exam-Style Questions - Sexual Reproduction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-1-12-exam-style-questions-sexual-reproduction.md) - 4.2 Genetics - [4.2.1 Cell Division](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-2-1-cell-division.md) - [4.2.2 Meiosis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-2-2-meiosis.md) - [4.2.3 Genome](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-2-3-genome.md) - [4.2.4 Genome Diagram](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-2-4-genome-diagram.md) - [4.2.5 DNA](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-2-5-dna.md) - [4.2.6 RNA](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-2-6-rna.md) - [4.2.7 Protein Synthesis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-2-7-protein-synthesis.md) - [4.2.8 Synthesis Process](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-2-8-synthesis-process.md) - [4.2.9 End of Topic Test - Reproduction & Genetics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-2-9-end-of-topic-test-reproduction-and-genetics.md) - 4.3 Variation - [4.3.1 Alleles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-3-1-alleles.md) - [4.3.2 Phenotype](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-3-2-phenotype.md) - [4.3.3 Monohybrid Inheritance](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-3-3-monohybrid-inheritance.md) - [4.3.4 Punnett Square](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-3-4-punnett-square.md) - [4.3.5 Sex Determination](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-3-5-sex-determination.md) - [4.3.6 Codominance](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-3-6-codominance.md) - [4.3.7 Cystic Fibrosis Punnett Square](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-3-7-cystic-fibrosis-punnett-square.md) - [4.3.8 Cystic Fibrosis Pedigree Diagram](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-3-8-cystic-fibrosis-pedigree-diagram.md) - [4.3.9 Variation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-3-9-variation.md) - [4.3.10 Mutations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-3-10-mutations.md) - [4.3.11 Natural Selection](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-3-11-natural-selection.md) - [4.3.12 Evolution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-3-12-evolution.md) - [4.3.13 Resistant Bacteria](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-3-13-resistant-bacteria.md) - [4.3.14 End of Topic Test - Variation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-3-14-end-of-topic-test-variation.md) - [4.3.15 Grade 9 - Evolution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-3-15-grade-9-evolution.md) - [4.3.16 Exam-Style Questions - Cystic Fibrosis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/4-3-16-exam-style-questions-cystic-fibrosis.md) ### 5 Ecology - 5.1 Ecosystems - [5.1.1 Ecosystems](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-1-1-ecosystems.md) - [5.1.2 Resources](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-1-2-resources.md) - [5.1.3 Interdependence](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-1-3-interdependence.md) - [5.1.4 Growth Factors](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-1-4-growth-factors.md) - [5.1.5 Assessing Ecosystems](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-1-5-assessing-ecosystems.md) - [5.1.6 Quadrats](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-1-6-quadrats.md) - [5.1.7 Required Practical](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-1-7-required-practical.md) - [5.1.8 Exam-Style Questions - Sampling](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-1-8-exam-style-questions-sampling.md) - [5.1.9 Energy Flow](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-1-9-energy-flow.md) - [5.1.10 Food Chains](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-1-10-food-chains.md) - [5.1.11 Trophic Levels](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-1-11-trophic-levels.md) - [5.1.12 Decomposers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-1-12-decomposers.md) - [5.1.13 Pyramids of Biomass](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-1-13-pyramids-of-biomass.md) - [5.1.14 Transfer of Biomass](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-1-14-transfer-of-biomass.md) - [5.1.15 Reasons for Wastage](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-1-15-reasons-for-wastage.md) - [5.1.16 End of Topic Test - Food and Trophic Levels](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-1-16-end-of-topic-test-food-and-trophic-levels.md) - [5.1.17 Recycling Materials](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-1-17-recycling-materials.md) - [5.1.18 Carbon Cycle](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-1-18-carbon-cycle.md) - [5.1.19 Exam-Style Questions - Carbon Cycle](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-1-19-exam-style-questions-carbon-cycle.md) - [5.1.20 Nitrogen Cycle](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-1-20-nitrogen-cycle.md) - [5.1.21 The Nitrogen Cycle and Microorganisms](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-1-21-the-nitrogen-cycle-and-microorganisms.md) - [5.1.22 End of Topic Test - Ecosystems](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-1-22-end-of-topic-test-ecosystems.md) - [5.1.23 Grade 9 - Ecosystems](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-1-23-grade-9-ecosystems.md) - 5.2 Human Impacts - [5.2.1 Waste Management](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-2-1-waste-management.md) - [5.2.2 Eutrophication](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-2-2-eutrophication.md) - [5.2.3 Air Pollution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-2-3-air-pollution.md) - [5.2.4 Deforestation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-2-4-deforestation.md) - [5.2.5 The Greenhouse Effect](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-2-5-the-greenhouse-effect.md) - [5.2.6 Greenhouse Gases](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-2-6-greenhouse-gases.md) - [5.2.7 Global Warming](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-2-7-global-warming.md) - [5.2.8 End of Topic Test - Human Impacts](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-2-8-end-of-topic-test-human-impacts.md) - [5.2.9 Exam-Style Questions - Air Pollution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/5-2-9-exam-style-questions-air-pollution.md) ### 6 Biological Resources - 6.1 Food Production - [6.1.1 Intensive Farming - Crop Yield](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/6-1-1-intensive-farming-crop-yield.md) - [6.1.2 Intensive Farming - Ion Deficiency](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/6-1-2-intensive-farming-ion-deficiency.md) - [6.1.3 Intensive Farming - Pest Control](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/6-1-3-intensive-farming-pest-control.md) - [6.1.4 Intensive Farming - Fish Farming](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/6-1-4-intensive-farming-fish-farming.md) - [6.1.5 Microorganisms in Food](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/6-1-5-microorganisms-in-food.md) - [6.1.6 Factors Affecting Microorganism Growth](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/6-1-6-factors-affecting-microorganism-growth.md) - [6.1.7 Industrial Fermentation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/6-1-7-industrial-fermentation.md) - [6.1.8 Selective Breeding](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/6-1-8-selective-breeding.md) - [6.1.9 Selective Breeding Process](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/6-1-9-selective-breeding-process.md) - [6.1.10 Uses of Selective Breeding](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/6-1-10-uses-of-selective-breeding.md) - [6.1.11 Exam-Style Questions - Selective Breeding](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/6-1-11-exam-style-questions-selective-breeding.md) - 6.2 Genetic Engineering - [6.2.1 Genetic Engineering](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/6-2-1-genetic-engineering.md) - [6.2.2 Uses of Genetic Engineering](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/6-2-2-uses-of-genetic-engineering.md) - [6.2.3 Producing Human Proteins in Bacteria](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/6-2-3-producing-human-proteins-in-bacteria.md) - [6.2.4 Tissue Culture](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/6-2-4-tissue-culture.md) - [6.2.5 Uses of Tissue Culture](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/6-2-5-uses-of-tissue-culture.md) - [6.2.6 Artificial Animal Cloning](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/6-2-6-artificial-animal-cloning.md) - [6.2.7 Exam-Style Questions - Mitosis & Cloning](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/igcse/biology/edexcel-igcse/higher/6-2-7-exam-style-questions-mitosis-and-cloning.md)