Source: https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-1-3-thermal-energy-transfer

[Revision notes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes.md) › [IB Diploma](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma.md) › [Physics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics.md) › [Physics: IB Diploma Higher Level](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level.md) › Thermal Energy Transfer

# Thermal Energy Transfer

Physics: IB Diploma Higher Level, topic 2.1.3

## Internal Energy

Internal energy is the sum of the randomly distributed kinetic energies and potential energies of all the particles in a gas.

### Particle energies

![Particle energies](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/de57a36a-c449-4ba7-b287-647c333c56fc/gas-smoke-cloud-.jpg)

- Kinetic energy comes from the random movements of particles in a gas. 
- Potential energy comes from the interactions between the particles.

### Adding energy

![Adding energy](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/physics/1.5.1%20Energy%20Changes/blow-torch-min.jpg)

- The internal energy can be increased by adding energy to the system. 
- If you add heat to a system it increases in energy but NOT always in temperature.

## Specific Heat Capacity

The specific heat capacity is the amount of energy needed to raise one kilogram of material by 1 degree Kelvin.

### Heat capacity

![Heat capacity](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/physics/2.2.2%20Heat%20Capacities/2.2.4.1.1%20-%20Heating%20curve%20(1)-min.png)

- Energy required = mass x specific heat capacity x change in temperature
 - $$Q=mc{\Delta\theta}$$

### Temperature

![Temperature](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/f418a04f-b5ac-4b1d-9300-6a96ee1157af/thermometer-3579034_1920.jpg)

- All temperatures should be calculated in Kelvin.
 - For changes in temperature, the change in degrees is the same as the change in Kelvin.

## Specific Latent Heat

The energy required to change the state of an object is the specific latent heat.

### Changing state

![Changing state](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/physics/2.2.4.1.1%20-%20Heating%20curve,%20changing%20states-min.png)

- To make an object go from a solid to a liquid or a liquid to a gas you need to add some energy. This energy is the latent heat. 
- The energy goes into weakening the intermolecular bonds NOT into changing the temperature. The equation for the energy is:
 - The energy needed = mass x specific latent heat 
 - $$Q=ml$$

### Kinetic energies

![Kinetic energies](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/physics/2.2.2%20Heat%20Capacities/condensation.jpg)

- When the latent heat is added to a solid to melt it, the bonds between molecules are weakened. 
- Because all of the energy goes into weakening the bonds, there is no gain in kinetic energy and there is no gain in temperature.

## Test yourself on Thermal Energy Transfer

- What is the internal energy of a gas?
- Which statements about internal energy are true?
- What is the correct form for the equation for specific heat capacity?
- Which statements about specific heat capacity are true?
- What does the energy used to change the state of a substance do?

[Practise this topic for free](https://app.senecalearning.com/classroom/course/d1080336-c86a-41e9-bd82-37d8d6e9f104/section/d2d1f75f-dfde-49c0-a030-695e0c17c7b4/session)

- Previous topic: [2.1.2 Molecular Kinetic Theory Model 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-1-2-molecular-kinetic-theory-model-2.md)
- Next topic: [2.1.4 Thermal Energy Transfer Experiments](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-1-4-thermal-energy-transfer-experiments.md)

## Physics: IB Diploma Higher Level contents

### 1 Space, Time & Motion
- 1.1 Motion
  - [1.1.1 Motion Basics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-1-1-motion-basics.md)
  - [1.1.2 Graphs of Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-1-2-graphs-of-motion.md)
  - [1.1.3 Uniform Acceleration Equations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-1-3-uniform-acceleration-equations.md)
  - [1.1.4 Projectile Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-1-4-projectile-motion.md)
  - [1.1.5 Bouncing Ball Example](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-1-5-bouncing-ball-example.md)
- 1.2 Forces
  - [1.2.1 Friction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-2-1-friction.md)
  - [1.2.2 Terminal Speed](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-2-2-terminal-speed.md)
  - [1.2.3 Newton's Laws](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-2-3-newtons-laws.md)
  - [1.2.4 Exam-Style Question - Forces](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-2-4-exam-style-question-forces.md)
  - [1.2.5 End of Topic Test - Newton's Third Law](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-2-5-end-of-topic-test-newtons-third-law.md)
- 1.3 Momentum & Impulse
  - [1.3.1 Momentum](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-3-1-momentum.md)
  - [1.3.2 Momentum 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-3-2-momentum-2.md)
  - [1.3.3 End of Topic Test - Newton's Laws & Momentum](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-3-3-end-of-topic-test-newtons-laws-and-momentum.md)
- 1.4 Work, Energy & Power
  - [1.4.1 Work & Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-4-1-work-and-energy.md)
  - [1.4.2 Conservation of Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-4-2-conservation-of-energy.md)
  - [1.4.3 Power & Efficiency](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-4-3-power-and-efficiency.md)
  - [1.4.4 IB Multiple Choice- Work, Energy & Power](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-4-4-ib-multiple-choice-work-energy-and-power.md)

### 2 The Particulate Nature of Matter
- 2.1 Thermal Concepts
  - [2.1.1 Molecular Kinetic Theory Model](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-1-1-molecular-kinetic-theory-model.md)
  - [2.1.2 Molecular Kinetic Theory Model 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-1-2-molecular-kinetic-theory-model-2.md)
  - [2.1.3 Thermal Energy Transfer](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-1-3-thermal-energy-transfer.md)
  - [2.1.4 Thermal Energy Transfer Experiments](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-1-4-thermal-energy-transfer-experiments.md)
  - [2.1.5 Thermal Equilibrium](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-1-5-thermal-equilibrium.md)
  - [2.1.6 Thermal Conductivity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-1-6-thermal-conductivity.md)
  - [2.1.7 Heat Energy Transfer](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-1-7-heat-energy-transfer.md)
- 2.2 Modelling a Gas
  - [2.2.1 Ideal Gases](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-2-1-ideal-gases.md)
  - [2.2.2 Ideal Gases 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-2-2-ideal-gases-2.md)
  - [2.2.3 End of Topic Test - Thermal Energy & Ideal Gases](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-2-3-end-of-topic-test-thermal-energy-and-ideal-gases.md)
  - [2.2.4 Exam-Style Question - Ideal Gases](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-2-4-exam-style-question-ideal-gases.md)

### 3 Wave Behaviour
- 3.1 Oscillations
  - [3.1.1 Progressive Waves](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-1-1-progressive-waves.md)
  - [3.1.2 Simple Harmonic Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-1-2-simple-harmonic-motion.md)
- 3.2 Travelling Waves
  - [3.2.1 Wave Speed & Phase Difference](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-2-1-wave-speed-and-phase-difference.md)
  - [3.2.2 Longitudinal & Transverse Waves](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-2-2-longitudinal-and-transverse-waves.md)
  - [3.2.3 Electromagnetic Waves](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-2-3-electromagnetic-waves.md)
  - [3.2.4 Electromagnetic Waves 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-2-4-electromagnetic-waves-2.md)
  - [3.2.5 Sound Waves](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-2-5-sound-waves.md)
- 3.3 Wave Characteristics
  - [3.3.1 Polarisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-3-1-polarisation.md)
- 3.4 Wave Behaviour
  - [3.4.1 Reflection & Absorption](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-4-1-reflection-and-absorption.md)
  - [3.4.2 Reflection of Light](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-4-2-reflection-of-light.md)
  - [3.4.3 Refraction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-4-3-refraction.md)
  - [3.4.4 Refractive index](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-4-4-refractive-index.md)
- 3.5 Standing Waves
  - [3.5.1 Standing Waves](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-5-1-standing-waves.md)
  - [3.5.2 Standing Waves 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-5-2-standing-waves-2.md)
  - [3.5.3 End of Topic Test - Standing Waves](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-5-3-end-of-topic-test-standing-waves.md)
  - [3.5.4 IB Multiple Choice - Waves](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-5-4-ib-multiple-choice-waves.md)
- 3.6 Simple Harmonic Motion
  - [3.6.1 Simple Harmonic Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-6-1-simple-harmonic-motion.md)
  - [3.6.2 Simple Harmonic Systems](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-6-2-simple-harmonic-systems.md)
  - [3.6.3 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-6-3-energy-in-simple-harmonic-motion.md)
  - [3.6.4 End of Topic Test - Simple Harmonic Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-6-4-end-of-topic-test-simple-harmonic-motion.md)
  - [3.6.5 End of Topic Test - Simple Harmonic Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-6-5-end-of-topic-test-simple-harmonic-motion.md)
- 3.7 Single Slit Diffraction
  - [3.7.1 Diffraction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-7-1-diffraction.md)
- 3.8 Interference
  - [3.8.1 Interference](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-8-1-interference.md)
  - [3.8.2 Interference 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-8-2-interference-2.md)
  - [3.8.3 Diffraction Gratings](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-8-3-diffraction-gratings.md)
  - [3.8.4 End of Topic Test - Diffraction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-8-4-end-of-topic-test-diffraction.md)
- 3.9 Doppler Effect
  - [3.9.1 Doppler Effect](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-9-1-doppler-effect.md)

### 4 Fields
- 4.1 Circular Motion
  - [4.1.1 Circular Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-1-1-circular-motion.md)
  - [4.1.2 Centripetal Force](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-1-2-centripetal-force.md)
  - [4.1.3 IB Multiple Choice - Circular Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-1-3-ib-multiple-choice-circular-motion.md)
- 4.2 Newton's Law of Gravitation
  - [4.2.1 Newton's Law](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-2-1-newtons-law.md)
  - [4.2.2 Orbits of Planets & Satellites](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-2-2-orbits-of-planets-and-satellites.md)
  - [4.2.3 Escape Velocity & Synchronous Orbits](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-2-3-escape-velocity-and-synchronous-orbits.md)
  - [4.2.4 End of Topic Test - Gravitational Fields](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-2-4-end-of-topic-test-gravitational-fields.md)
- 4.3 Fields
  - [4.3.1 Fields](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-3-1-fields.md)
  - [4.3.2 Gravitational Field Strength](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-3-2-gravitational-field-strength.md)
  - [4.3.3 Gravitational Potential](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-3-3-gravitational-potential.md)
  - [4.3.4 Electric Field Strength](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-3-4-electric-field-strength.md)
  - [4.3.5 Electrostatic & Gravitational Forces](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-3-5-electrostatic-and-gravitational-forces.md)
  - [4.3.6 Electric Potential](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-3-6-electric-potential.md)
  - [4.3.7 IB Multiple Choice - Gravitational Fields](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-3-7-ib-multiple-choice-gravitational-fields.md)
- 4.4 Fields at Work
  - [4.4.1 Radial Field Strength](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-4-1-radial-field-strength.md)
  - [4.4.2 Orbits of Planets & Satellites](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-4-2-orbits-of-planets-and-satellites.md)
  - [4.4.3 Escape Velocity & Synchronous Orbits](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-4-3-escape-velocity-and-synchronous-orbits.md)
  - [4.4.4 End of Topic Test - Gravitational Fields](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-4-4-end-of-topic-test-gravitational-fields.md)
  - [4.4.5 Uniform Electric Fields](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-4-5-uniform-electric-fields.md)
  - [4.4.6 IB Multiple Choice - Electric Field & Potential](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-4-6-ib-multiple-choice-electric-field-and-potential.md)
- 4.5 Electric Fields
  - [4.5.1 Electric Charge](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-5-1-electric-charge.md)
  - [4.5.2 Conservation of Charge](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-5-2-conservation-of-charge.md)
  - [4.5.3 Coulomb's Law](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-5-3-coulombs-law.md)
  - [4.5.4 Current](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-5-4-current.md)
  - [4.5.5 Potential Difference](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-5-5-potential-difference.md)
  - [4.5.6 IB Multiple Choice - Electric Charge](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-5-6-ib-multiple-choice-electric-charge.md)
- 4.6 Magnetic Effect of Electric Currents
  - [4.6.1 Magnetism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-6-1-magnetism.md)
  - [4.6.2 Magnetic Field](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-6-2-magnetic-field.md)
  - [4.6.3 Magnetic Force](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-6-3-magnetic-force.md)
  - [4.6.4 Moving Charges in a Magnetic Field](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-6-4-moving-charges-in-a-magnetic-field.md)
  - [4.6.5 IB Multiple Choice - Magnetism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-6-5-ib-multiple-choice-magnetism.md)
- 4.7 Heating Effect of Currents
  - [4.7.1 Circuits](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-7-1-circuits.md)
  - [4.7.2 Resistance](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-7-2-resistance.md)
  - [4.7.3 Power and Conservation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-7-3-power-and-conservation.md)
  - [4.7.4 IB Multiple Choice - DC Circuits](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-7-4-ib-multiple-choice-dc-circuits.md)
- 4.8 Electromagnetic Induction
  - [4.8.1 Electromagnetic Induction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-8-1-electromagnetic-induction.md)
  - [4.8.2 Electromagnetic Induction 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-8-2-electromagnetic-induction-2.md)
  - [4.8.3 Magnetic Flux & Flux Linkage](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-8-3-magnetic-flux-and-flux-linkage.md)
  - [4.8.4 End of Topic Test - Electromagnetic Induction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-8-4-end-of-topic-test-electromagnetic-induction.md)
- 4.9 Power Generation & Transmission
  - [4.9.1 Alternating Currents](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-9-1-alternating-currents.md)
  - [4.9.2 Operation of a Transformer](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-9-2-operation-of-a-transformer.md)
- 4.10 Capacitance
  - [4.10.1 Capacitance](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-10-1-capacitance.md)
  - [4.10.2 Parallel Plate Capacitor](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-10-2-parallel-plate-capacitor.md)
  - [4.10.3 Energy Stored by a Capacitor](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-10-3-energy-stored-by-a-capacitor.md)
  - [4.10.4 Capacitor Discharge](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-10-4-capacitor-discharge.md)
  - [4.10.5 Capacitor Charge](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-10-5-capacitor-charge.md)
  - [4.10.6 Magnetic Flux Density](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-10-6-magnetic-flux-density.md)
  - [4.10.7 End of Topic Test - Capacitance & Flux Density](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-10-7-end-of-topic-test-capacitance-and-flux-density.md)

### 5 Nuclear & Quantum Physics
- 5.1 Discrete Energy & Radioactivity
  - [5.1.1 Atomic Spectra](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-1-1-atomic-spectra.md)
  - [5.1.2 Atomic Structure](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-1-2-atomic-structure.md)
  - [5.1.3 Photons](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-1-3-photons.md)
  - [5.1.4 Discrete Energy Levels](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-1-4-discrete-energy-levels.md)
  - [5.1.5 Alpha, Beta & Gamma Radiation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-1-5-alpha-beta-and-gamma-radiation.md)
  - [5.1.6 Scientific Practices - Unstable Nuclei](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-1-6-scientific-practices-unstable-nuclei.md)
  - [5.1.7 Radioactive Decay](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-1-7-radioactive-decay.md)
  - [5.1.8 IB Multiple Choice - Atomic Physics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-1-8-ib-multiple-choice-atomic-physics.md)
- 5.2 Nuclear Reactions
  - [5.2.1 Mass & Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-2-1-mass-and-energy.md)
  - [5.2.2 Nuclear Fission](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-2-2-nuclear-fission.md)
- 5.3 The Interaction of Matter with Radiation
  - [5.3.1 Particles, Antiparticles & Photons](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-3-1-particles-antiparticles-and-photons.md)
  - [5.3.2 Particle Interactions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-3-2-particle-interactions.md)
  - [5.3.3 Classification of Particles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-3-3-classification-of-particles.md)
  - [5.3.4 Wave-Particle Duality](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-3-4-wave-particle-duality.md)
  - [5.3.5 Wave Functions & Probability](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-3-5-wave-functions-and-probability.md)
  - [5.3.6 IB Multiple Choice - Quantum Physics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-3-6-ib-multiple-choice-quantum-physics.md)
- 5.4 Nuclear Physics
  - [5.4.1 Nuclear Instability & Radioactive Decay](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-4-1-nuclear-instability-and-radioactive-decay.md)
  - [5.4.2 Nuclear Radius](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-4-2-nuclear-radius.md)
  - [5.4.3 IB Multiple Choice - Nuclear Physics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-4-3-ib-multiple-choice-nuclear-physics.md)

### 6 Measurements
- 6.1 Measurements & Errors
  - [6.1.1 Fundamental Units](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-1-1-fundamental-units.md)
  - [6.1.2 SI Prefixes, Standard Form & Converting Units](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-1-2-si-prefixes-standard-form-and-converting-units.md)
  - [6.1.3 End of Topic Test - Units & Prefixes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-1-3-end-of-topic-test-units-and-prefixes.md)
- 6.2 Uncertainties & Errors
  - [6.2.1 Limitation of Physical Measurements](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-2-1-limitation-of-physical-measurements.md)
  - [6.2.2 Uncertainty](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-2-2-uncertainty.md)
  - [6.2.3 Estimation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-2-3-estimation.md)
  - [6.2.4 End of Topic Test - Measurements & Errors](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-2-4-end-of-topic-test-measurements-and-errors.md)
- 6.3 Vectors & Scalars
  - [6.3.1 Scalars & Vectors](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-3-1-scalars-and-vectors.md)
  - [6.3.2 Vector Problems](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/physics/physics-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-3-2-vector-problems.md)