Source: https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-3-2-covalent-lewis-structures [Revision notes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes.md) › [IB Diploma](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma.md) › [Chemistry](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry.md) › [Chemistry: IB Diploma Higher Level](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level.md) › Covalent Lewis Structures # Covalent Lewis Structures Chemistry: IB Diploma Higher Level, topic 2.3.2 ## Representing Covalent Bonds There are many ways of representing covalent bonds in a molecule. 4 ways of representing ammonia are shown below: ### Lewis with shells ![Lewis with shells](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/chemistry/(s)%202.1.4.4%20-%20NH3%20dot%20and%20cross%20diagram%20with%20shells.png) - Dots represent the outer shell electrons of atoms of 1 element. - Crosses represent the outer shell electrons of atoms of the other element. - A limitation of this method is that it shows electrons differently for each atom, when they are actually exactly the same. ### Lewis without shells ![Lewis without shells](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/chemistry/(s)%202.1.4.5%20-%20NH3%20dot%20and%20cross%20without%20shells.png) - Dots represent the outer shell electrons of atoms of 1 element. - Crosses represent the outer shell electrons of atoms of the other element. ### Ball-and-stick ![Ball-and-stick](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/chemistry/(s)%202.1.4.7%20-%20NH3%20ball%20and%20stick%20model.png) - Balls represent atoms. - Sticks represent bonds between the atoms. - A limitation of this method is that atoms are much closer together than the diagram shows. ### Lines ![Lines](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/chemistry/(s)%202.1.4.6%20-%20NH3%20line%20diagram.png) - The atomic symbol represents the atom. - Lines between the atoms represent a covalent bond. ## Lewis Diagrams Lewis diagrams can be used to represent covalent bonds and to show the sharing of electron pairs. ### Chlorine (Cl2) ![Chlorine (Cl2)](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/chemistry/2.1.2%20-%20Chemical%20bonds/(s)%202.1.4.1%20-%20Covalent%20bonding%20in%20chlorine.png) - Each chlorine (Cl) atom begins with 7 electrons in its outer shell. - By sharing 1 pair of electrons in a single covalent bond, each Cl atom obtains a full outer shell with 8 electrons. ### Water (H2O) ![Water (H2O)](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-11/c1bc036c-2fda-4bd3-b9ce-12fb0e273102/water-dot%20and%20cross-.png) - Because oxygen has 6 electrons in its outer shell, it needs to have 2 extra electrons shared with it to get a full outer electron shell. - To do this, it forms a single covalent bond with 2 hydrogen atoms. ### Double and triple bonds ![Double and triple bonds](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/chemistry/2.1.2%20-%20Chemical%20bonds/Double-bond.png) - The earlier examples show single covalent bonds (1 shared pair of electrons between atoms), but it is also possible to form double (2 shared pairs) and even triple covalent bonds (3 shared pairs). - Double and triple bonds are normally stronger and require more energy to break. ### Oxygen (O2) ![Oxygen (O2)](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-11/7071beac-f04b-43ba-a55f-33a8e688588a/oxygen-dot%20and%20cross-.png) - Each oxygen needs 2 electrons to get a full outer shell. - Therefore, each oxygen atom shares 2 electrons with the other, leaving 2 pairs of electrons in the shared space between the atoms. - This is an example of a double covalent bond. ## Test yourself on Covalent Lewis Structures - Which of the following is NOT a way of representing covalent bonds? - Nitrogen atoms have 5 electrons in their outer shell. What type of bond forms between 2 nitrogen atoms? - When compared with single covalent bonds, double and triple covalent bonds... [Practise this topic for free](https://app.senecalearning.com/classroom/course/6c044999-c7c8-4b67-b944-b6da4b0bd02e/section/58333c14-b048-439e-8b34-ab94c9328354/session) - Previous topic: [2.3.1 Ionic Lewis Structures](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-3-1-ionic-lewis-structures.md) - Next topic: [2.3.3 VSEPR Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-3-3-vsepr-theory.md) ## Chemistry: IB Diploma Higher Level contents ### 1 Structure - Models of the Particulate of Matter - 1.1 Introduction to the Particulate Model of Matter - [1.1.1 States of Matter](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-1-1-states-of-matter.md) - [1.1.2 Kinetic Molecular Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-1-2-kinetic-molecular-theory.md) - [1.1.3 Simple Sphere](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-1-3-simple-sphere.md) - [1.1.4 Changing State](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-1-4-changing-state.md) - [1.1.5 Forces Between Particles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-1-5-forces-between-particles.md) - [1.1.6 Changes of State](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-1-6-changes-of-state.md) - [1.1.7 Predicting States](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-1-7-predicting-states.md) - [1.1.8 Changing State HyperLearning](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-1-8-changing-state-hyperlearning.md) - [1.1.9 Ionization Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-1-9-ionization-energy.md) - 1.2 The Nuclear Atom - [1.2.1 Fundamental Particles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-2-1-fundamental-particles.md) - [1.2.2 Isotopes & Mass Number](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-2-2-isotopes-and-mass-number.md) - [1.2.3 Mass Spectrometry](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-2-3-mass-spectrometry.md) - [1.2.4 Mass Spectrometry](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-2-4-mass-spectrometry.md) - [1.2.5 Mass Spectroscopy - Analysis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-2-5-mass-spectroscopy-analysis.md) - [1.2.6 Extended Response - Mass Spectrometry](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-2-6-extended-response-mass-spectrometry.md) - [1.2.7 Radioactivity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-2-7-radioactivity.md) - 1.3 Electron Configuration - [1.3.1 Electron Shells, Sub-Shells & Orbitals](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-3-1-electron-shells-sub-shells-and-orbitals.md) - [1.3.2 Electron Configuration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-3-2-electron-configuration.md) - [1.3.3 Absorption & Emission Spectra](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-3-3-absorption-and-emission-spectra.md) - [1.3.4 IB Multiple Choice - Atomic Structure](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-3-4-ib-multiple-choice-atomic-structure.md) - [1.3.5 Extended Response - The Atom & Electrons](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-3-5-extended-response-the-atom-and-electrons.md) - 1.4 Counting Particles by Mass: The Mole - [1.4.1 Relative Masses](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-4-1-relative-masses.md) - [1.4.2 The Mole](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-4-2-the-mole.md) - [1.4.3 IB Multiple Choice - Moles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-4-3-ib-multiple-choice-moles.md) - 1.5 Ideal Gases - [1.5.1 Ideal Gas Equation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-5-1-ideal-gas-equation.md) - [1.5.2 Gas Laws](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-5-2-gas-laws.md) - [1.5.3 IB Multiple Choice - Gases & Kinetics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-5-3-ib-multiple-choice-gases-and-kinetics.md) - 1.6 Elements, Compounds & Mixtures - [1.6.1 Fundamental Particles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-6-1-fundamental-particles.md) - [1.6.2 Pure Substances](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-6-2-pure-substances.md) - [1.6.3 Purity & The Law of Definite Proportion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-6-3-purity-and-the-law-of-definite-proportion.md) - [1.6.4 Mixtures](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-6-4-mixtures.md) - [1.6.5 Separating Mixtures](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-6-5-separating-mixtures.md) - [1.6.6 IB Multiple Choice - Pure Substances](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-6-6-ib-multiple-choice-pure-substances.md) - [1.6.7 Extended Response - Moles & Pure Substances](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-6-7-extended-response-moles-and-pure-substances.md) - 1.7 States of Matter & Changes of State - [1.7.1 States of Matter](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-7-1-states-of-matter.md) - [1.7.2 Particle Diagrams](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-7-2-particle-diagrams.md) - [1.7.3 IB Multiple Choice - Solids, Liquids, & Gases](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-7-3-ib-multiple-choice-solids-liquids-and-gases.md) - [1.7.4 Balancing Equations & Ionic Equations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-7-4-balancing-equations-and-ionic-equations.md) - [1.7.5 Empirical & Molecular Formulas](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-7-5-empirical-and-molecular-formulas.md) - 1.8 Reacting Masses &. Volumes - [1.8.1 Balancing Equations & Ionic Equations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-8-1-balancing-equations-and-ionic-equations.md) - [1.8.2 Percentage Yield](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-8-2-percentage-yield.md) - 1.9 Solutions - [1.9.1 Molarity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-9-1-molarity.md) - [1.9.2 Particulate Model of Solutions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/1-9-2-particulate-model-of-solutions.md) ### 2 Structure - Models of Bonding & Structure - 2.1 The Ionic Model - [2.1.1 Ionic Bonding](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-1-1-ionic-bonding.md) - 2.2 The Covalent Model - [2.2.1 Covalent Bonds](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-2-1-covalent-bonds.md) - [2.2.2 Complex Ions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-2-2-complex-ions.md) - [2.2.3 Factors Affecting Covalent Bond Strength](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-2-3-factors-affecting-covalent-bond-strength.md) - [2.2.4 Polarity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-2-4-polarity.md) - 2.3 Covalent Structures - [2.3.1 Ionic Lewis Structures](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-3-1-ionic-lewis-structures.md) - [2.3.2 Covalent Lewis Structures](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-3-2-covalent-lewis-structures.md) - [2.3.3 VSEPR Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-3-3-vsepr-theory.md) - [2.3.4 Resonance Structures](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-3-4-resonance-structures.md) - [2.3.5 Allotropes of Carbon](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-3-5-allotropes-of-carbon.md) - [2.3.6 Formal Charge](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-3-6-formal-charge.md) - [2.3.7 End of Topic Quiz - Bonding](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-3-7-end-of-topic-quiz-bonding.md) - [2.3.8 IB Multiple Choice - Bonding & Lewis Structures](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-3-8-ib-multiple-choice-bonding-and-lewis-structures.md) - [2.3.9 IB Multiple Choice - Resonance & Formal Charge](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-3-9-ib-multiple-choice-resonance-and-formal-charge.md) - 2.4 The Metallic Model - [2.4.1 Metallic Bonding](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-4-1-metallic-bonding.md) - 2.5 From Models to Materials - [2.5.1 Alloys](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-5-1-alloys.md) - [2.5.2 Properties of Polymers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-5-2-properties-of-polymers.md) - [2.5.3 Polymerisation Reactions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-5-3-polymerisation-reactions.md) - [2.5.4 Introduction to Alkenes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-5-4-introduction-to-alkenes.md) - [2.5.5 Reactions of Alkenes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-5-5-reactions-of-alkenes.md) - [2.5.6 End of Topic Quiz - Alkenes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-5-6-end-of-topic-quiz-alkenes.md) - 2.6 Valence Electrons & Ionic Compounds - [2.6.1 Valence Electrons & Forming Ions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-6-1-valence-electrons-and-forming-ions.md) - [2.6.2 Ionic Compounds](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-6-2-ionic-compounds.md) - [2.6.3 End of Topic Quiz - Atoms & Ions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-6-3-end-of-topic-quiz-atoms-and-ions.md) - [2.6.4 IB Multiple Choice - Valence & Ions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-6-4-ib-multiple-choice-valence-and-ions.md) - 2.7 Molecular Shape - [2.7.1 VSEPR](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-7-1-vsepr.md) - [2.7.2 Molecular Shapes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-7-2-molecular-shapes.md) - [2.7.3 Bond Hybridization](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-7-3-bond-hybridization.md) - [2.7.4 IB Multiple Choice - VSEPR & Bond Hybridization](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-7-4-ib-multiple-choice-vsepr-and-bond-hybridization.md) - [2.7.5 Extended Response - Bonding & Molecular Shape](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-7-5-extended-response-bonding-and-molecular-shape.md) - 2.8 Intermolecular Forces - [2.8.1 Introduction to Intermolecular Forces](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-8-1-introduction-to-intermolecular-forces.md) - [2.8.2 London Dispersion Forces](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-8-2-london-dispersion-forces.md) - [2.8.3 Dipole-Dipole Interactions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-8-3-dipole-dipole-interactions.md) - [2.8.4 Ion-Dipole Interactions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-8-4-ion-dipole-interactions.md) - [2.8.5 Hydrogen Bonding](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-8-5-hydrogen-bonding.md) - [2.8.6 Large Biomolecules](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-8-6-large-biomolecules.md) - [2.8.7 IB Multiple Choice - Intermolecular Forces](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-8-7-ib-multiple-choice-intermolecular-forces.md) - [2.8.8 Extended Response - Hydrogen Bonding](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/2-8-8-extended-response-hydrogen-bonding.md) ### 3 Structure - Classification of Matter - 3.1 The Periodic Table: Classification of Elements - [3.1.1 The Periodic Table](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-1-1-the-periodic-table.md) - [3.1.2 Trends in the Periodic Table](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-1-2-trends-in-the-periodic-table.md) - [3.1.3 End of Topic Quiz - Periodicity & Trends](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-1-3-end-of-topic-quiz-periodicity-and-trends.md) - [3.1.4 Periodic Trends - Electronegativity & Affinity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-1-4-periodic-trends-electronegativity-and-affinity.md) - [3.1.5 End of Topic Quiz - Periodic Trends](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-1-5-end-of-topic-quiz-periodic-trends.md) - [3.1.6 IB Multiple Choice - Periodic Trends](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-1-6-ib-multiple-choice-periodic-trends.md) - [3.1.7 Extended Response - Periodic Table](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-1-7-extended-response-periodic-table.md) - 3.2 Periodic Trends - [3.2.1 Atomic & Ionic Radii](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-2-1-atomic-and-ionic-radii.md) - [3.2.2 Ionisation & Electronegativity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-2-2-ionisation-and-electronegativity.md) - [3.2.3 Metallic Behaviour & Oxides](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-2-3-metallic-behaviour-and-oxides.md) - [3.2.4 Period 3 Elements & Oxides](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-2-4-period-3-elements-and-oxides.md) - [3.2.5 Period 3 Oxides](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-2-5-period-3-oxides.md) - [3.2.6 End of Topic Quiz - Period 3](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-2-6-end-of-topic-quiz-period-3.md) - [3.2.7 Periodic Trends: Blocks](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-2-7-periodic-trends-blocks.md) - [3.2.8 Redox Chemistry](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-2-8-redox-chemistry.md) - 3.3 Group 1 Alkali Metals - [3.3.1 Alkali Metals](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-3-1-alkali-metals.md) - 3.4 Halogens - [3.4.1 Introduction to Halogens](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-4-1-introduction-to-halogens.md) - [3.4.2 Reactions of Halogens](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-4-2-reactions-of-halogens.md) - [3.4.3 Chlorine & Chlorate(I)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-4-3-chlorine-and-chloratei.md) - [3.4.4 End of Topic Quiz - Group 7](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-4-4-end-of-topic-quiz-group-7.md) - [3.4.5 Exam-Style Question - Group 7](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-4-5-exam-style-question-group-7.md) - [3.4.6 End of Topic Quiz - Periodicity, Group 2 & 7](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-4-6-end-of-topic-quiz-periodicity-group-2-and-7.md) - 3.5 Noble gases, group 18 - [3.5.1 Noble Gases](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-5-1-noble-gases.md) - 3.6 Functional Groups: Classification of Organic - [3.6.1 Nomenclature](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-6-1-nomenclature.md) - [3.6.2 Trends in Physical Properties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-6-2-trends-in-physical-properties.md) - [3.6.3 Saturated & Unsaturated Hydrocarbons](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-6-3-saturated-and-unsaturated-hydrocarbons.md) - [3.6.4 Nomenclature contd.](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-6-4-nomenclature-contd.md) - [3.6.5 Types of Formulas](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-6-5-types-of-formulas.md) - [3.6.6 Isomerism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-6-6-isomerism.md) - [3.6.7 Formulae](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-6-7-formulae.md) - [3.6.8 Homologous Series](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-6-8-homologous-series.md) - [3.6.9 Structural Isomers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-6-9-structural-isomers.md) - 3.7 Functional Group Chemistry - [3.7.1 Degrees of Substitution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-7-1-degrees-of-substitution.md) - [3.7.2 Arenes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-7-2-arenes.md) - 3.8 Alkanes - [3.8.1 Alkanes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-8-1-alkanes.md) - [3.8.2 Fractional Distillation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-8-2-fractional-distillation.md) - [3.8.3 Cracking](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-8-3-cracking.md) - [3.8.4 Combustion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-8-4-combustion.md) - [3.8.5 Chlorination](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-8-5-chlorination.md) - [3.8.6 End of Topic Quiz - Alkanes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-8-6-end-of-topic-quiz-alkanes.md) - 3.9 Alcohols - [3.9.1 Production of Alcohols](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-9-1-production-of-alcohols.md) - [3.9.2 Oxidation of Alcohols](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-9-2-oxidation-of-alcohols.md) - [3.9.3 Oxidation of Alcohols - 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-9-3-oxidation-of-alcohols-2.md) - [3.9.4 Elimination Reactions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-9-4-elimination-reactions.md) - [3.9.5 End of Topic Quiz - Alcohols](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-9-5-end-of-topic-quiz-alcohols.md) - [3.9.6 Exam-Style Question - Alcohols](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-9-6-exam-style-question-alcohols.md) - 3.10 Halogenoalkanes - [3.10.1 Substitution Reactions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-10-1-substitution-reactions.md) - [3.10.2 Elimination Reactions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-10-2-elimination-reactions.md) - [3.10.3 Ozone Depletion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-10-3-ozone-depletion.md) - [3.10.4 End of Topic Quiz - Halogenoalkanes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/3-10-4-end-of-topic-quiz-halogenoalkanes.md) ### 4 Reactivity - What Drives Chemical Reaction? - 4.1 Endothermic & Exothermic Reactions - [4.1.1 Endothermic & Exothermic Reactions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-1-1-endothermic-and-exothermic-reactions.md) - [4.1.2 Energy Diagrams](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-1-2-energy-diagrams.md) - [4.1.3 Heat Transfer & Thermal Equilibrium](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-1-3-heat-transfer-and-thermal-equilibrium.md) - [4.1.4 IB Multiple Choice - Enthalpy & Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-1-4-ib-multiple-choice-enthalpy-and-energy.md) - 4.2 Enthalpy of Reaction, Formation, & Hess' Law - [4.2.1 Enthalpy of Reaction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-2-1-enthalpy-of-reaction.md) - [4.2.2 Bond Enthalpies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-2-2-bond-enthalpies.md) - [4.2.3 Enthalpy of Formation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-2-3-enthalpy-of-formation.md) - [4.2.4 Hess’ Law](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-2-4-hess-law.md) - [4.2.5 Thermodynamics & Kinetic Control](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-2-5-thermodynamics-and-kinetic-control.md) - [4.2.6 End of Topic Quiz - Thermodynamics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-2-6-end-of-topic-quiz-thermodynamics.md) - [4.2.7 IB Multiple Choice - Enthalpy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-2-7-ib-multiple-choice-enthalpy.md) - [4.2.8 Extended Response - Enthalpy Change](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-2-8-extended-response-enthalpy-change.md) - 4.3 Entropy - [4.3.1 Introduction to Entropy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-3-1-introduction-to-entropy.md) - [4.3.2 Absolute Entropy & Entropy Change](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-3-2-absolute-entropy-and-entropy-change.md) - [4.3.3 Free Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-3-3-free-energy.md) - [4.3.4 Thermodynamically Favorable Reactions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-3-4-thermodynamically-favorable-reactions.md) - [4.3.5 IB Multiple Choice - Entropy & Free Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-3-5-ib-multiple-choice-entropy-and-free-energy.md) - [4.3.6 Extended Response - Free Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/4-3-6-extended-response-free-energy.md) ### 5 Reactivity - How Much, How Fast & How Far? - 5.1 Kinetics - [5.1.1 Collision Theory & Rates of Reaction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-1-1-collision-theory-and-rates-of-reaction.md) - [5.1.2 Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-1-2-maxwell-boltzmann-distribution.md) - [5.1.3 Increasing Rates](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-1-3-increasing-rates.md) - [5.1.4 End of Topic Quiz - Kinetics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-1-4-end-of-topic-quiz-kinetics.md) - 5.2 Rates of Reaction - [5.2.1 Rate Equations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-2-1-rate-equations.md) - [5.2.2 Rate Equations 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-2-2-rate-equations-2.md) - [5.2.3 The Effect of a Catalyst](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-2-3-the-effect-of-a-catalyst.md) - 5.3 Stoichometry - [5.3.1 Stoichiometry](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-3-1-stoichiometry.md) - 5.4 Le Châtelier’s Principle - [5.4.1 Introduction to Le Châtelier’s Principle](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-4-1-introduction-to-le-chateliers-principle.md) - [5.4.2 Reaction Quotient & Le Châtelier’s Principle](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-4-2-reaction-quotient-and-le-chateliers-principle.md) - [5.4.3 Temperature & Le Châtelier’s Principle](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-4-3-temperature-and-le-chateliers-principle.md) - [5.4.4 IB Multiple Choice -Le Châtelier’s Principle](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-4-4-ib-multiple-choice-le-chateliers-principle.md) - [5.4.5 Extended Response - Le Châtelier](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-4-5-extended-response-le-chatelier.md) - 5.5 Introduction to Equilibrium - [5.5.1 Equilibrium & Equilibrium Graphs](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-5-1-equilibrium-and-equilibrium-graphs.md) - [5.5.2 Dynamic Equilibria](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-5-2-dynamic-equilibria.md) - [5.5.3 Reversible Reactions & Directions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-5-3-reversible-reactions-and-directions.md) - 5.6 Equilibrium Constant - [5.6.1 Calculating the Equilibrium Constant](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-6-1-calculating-the-equilibrium-constant.md) - [5.6.2 Magnitude of the Equilibrium Constant](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-6-2-magnitude-of-the-equilibrium-constant.md) - [5.6.3 Properties of the Equilibrium Constant](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-6-3-properties-of-the-equilibrium-constant.md) - [5.6.4 Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-6-4-calculating-equilibrium-concentrations.md) - [5.6.5 Representations of Equilibrium](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-6-5-representations-of-equilibrium.md) - [5.6.6 IB Multiple Choice - Equilibrium Constants](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-6-6-ib-multiple-choice-equilibrium-constants.md) - [5.6.7 Extended Response - Calculating Kc](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-6-7-extended-response-calculating-kc.md) - 5.7 Reaction Quotient & Equilibrium Constant - [5.7.1 Reaction Quotient](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-7-1-reaction-quotient.md) - [5.7.2 Equilibrium Constants](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-7-2-equilibrium-constants.md) - [5.7.3 Partial Pressures](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-7-3-partial-pressures.md) - [5.7.4 Kp](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-7-4-kp.md) - [5.7.5 IB Multiple Choice - Reaction Quotient & Kp](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-7-5-ib-multiple-choice-reaction-quotient-and-kp.md) - [5.7.6 Extended Response - Kp & Bond Enthalpy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/5-7-6-extended-response-kp-and-bond-enthalpy.md) ### 6 Reactivity - The Mechanisms of Chemical Change - 6.1 Proton Transfer Reactions - [6.1.1 Brønsted-Lowry Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-1-1-bronsted-lowry-theory.md) - 6.2 The pH Scale - [6.2.1 pH & pOH](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-2-1-ph-and-poh.md) - [6.2.2 Ionic Product of Water](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-2-2-ionic-product-of-water.md) - [6.2.3 Using Kw](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-2-3-using-kw.md) - [6.2.4 IB Multiple Choice - pH & Kw](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-2-4-ib-multiple-choice-ph-and-kw.md) - [6.2.5 Extended Response - Kw](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-2-5-extended-response-kw.md) - 6.3 Strong & Weak Acids and Bases - [6.3.1 Strong Acids & Bases](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-3-1-strong-acids-and-bases.md) - [6.3.2 Weak Acids & Ka](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-3-2-weak-acids-and-ka.md) - [6.3.3 Weak Bases & Kb](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-3-3-weak-bases-and-kb.md) - [6.3.4 Weak Acids & Bases Calculation Walkthrough](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-3-4-weak-acids-and-bases-calculation-walkthrough.md) - 6.4 Acid Deposition - [6.4.1 Acid Deposition](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-4-1-acid-deposition.md) - 6.5 Types of Organic Reactions - [6.5.1 Electrophilic Substitution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-5-1-electrophilic-substitution.md) - 6.6 Oxidation & Reduction - [6.6.1 Oxidation Number Method](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-6-1-oxidation-number-method.md) - [6.6.2 Winkler Method](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-6-2-winkler-method.md) - [6.6.3 Redox Reactions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-6-3-redox-reactions.md) - [6.6.4 Oxidation States & Equations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-6-4-oxidation-states-and-equations.md) - [6.6.5 End of Topic Quiz - Redox](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-6-5-end-of-topic-quiz-redox.md) - [6.6.6 Extended Response - Redox Reactions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-6-6-extended-response-redox-reactions.md) - 6.7 Electrochemical Cells - [6.7.1 Introduction to Electrochemical Cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-7-1-introduction-to-electrochemical-cells.md) - [6.7.2 Galvanic Cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-7-2-galvanic-cells.md) - [6.7.3 Cell Notation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-7-3-cell-notation.md) - [6.7.4 Electrolytic Cells](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-7-4-electrolytic-cells.md) - [6.7.5 Extended Response - Voltaic Cells & Redox](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-7-5-extended-response-voltaic-cells-and-redox.md) - 6.8 Titration - [6.8.1 Redox Titrations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-8-1-redox-titrations.md) - [6.8.2 Titration Calculations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-8-2-titration-calculations.md) - [6.8.3 Atom Economy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-8-3-atom-economy.md) - 6.9 Acid-Base Titrations - [6.9.1 Titration Calculation Weak Acid & Strong Base](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-9-1-titration-calculation-weak-acid-and-strong-base.md) - [6.9.2 Titration Experimental Detail](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-9-2-titration-experimental-detail.md) - [6.9.3 Extended Response - Titration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-9-3-extended-response-titration.md) - [6.9.4 Titration Calculations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-9-4-titration-calculations.md) - [6.9.5 Titration Curves](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-9-5-titration-curves.md) - [6.9.6 Titration Calculation Strong Acid & Weak Base](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-9-6-titration-calculation-strong-acid-and-weak-base.md) - [6.9.7 IB Multiple Choice - Titrations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-9-7-ib-multiple-choice-titrations.md) - [6.9.8 Polyprotic Acids](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-9-8-polyprotic-acids.md) - [6.9.9 Titration Calculations Strong Acid & Strong Base](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-9-9-titration-calculations-strong-acid-and-strong-base.md) - [6.9.10 Titrations Curves 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/6-9-10-titrations-curves-2.md) ### 7 Measurement, Data Processing & Analysis - 7.1 Uncertainties & Errors in Measurements & Results - [7.1.1 Qualitative & Quantitative data](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/7-1-1-qualitative-and-quantitative-data.md) - 7.2 Graphical Techniques - [7.2.1 Drawing & Interpreting Graphs](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/7-2-1-drawing-and-interpreting-graphs.md) - [7.2.2 Linear Interpolation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/7-2-2-linear-interpolation.md) - 7.3 Spectroscopic Identification of Organic Compounds - [7.3.1 Understanding NMR](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/7-3-1-understanding-nmr.md) - [7.3.2 Carbon-13 NMR](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/7-3-2-carbon-13-nmr.md) - [7.3.3 Hydrogen-1 NMR](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/7-3-3-hydrogen-1-nmr.md) - [7.3.4 Hydrogen-1 NMR 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/7-3-4-hydrogen-1-nmr-2.md) - [7.3.5 End of Topic Quiz - NMR](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/7-3-5-end-of-topic-quiz-nmr.md) - 7.4 Infrared Spectroscpy - [7.4.1 Infrared Spectroscopy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/ib-diploma/chemistry/chemistry-ib-diploma-higher-level/7-4-1-infrared-spectroscopy.md)