Source: https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-3-8-observation

[Revision notes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes.md) › [A Level](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level.md) › [Sociology](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology.md) › [AQA](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa.md) › Observation

# Observation

Sociology: AQA A Level, topic 1.3.8

## Participant Observation

Participant observation is where the researcher attempts to become an accepted member of the group being studied. Participant observation has many problems associated with it, including practical, ethical and theoretical issues.

### Participant observation

![Participant observation](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/53994713-67f3-41c4-8fe1-78f6318a89ea/spy-camera-photo-.jpg)

- This method is used by interpretivists, who argue that a sociological understanding of society can only be gained when researchers put themselves in the same position as the people they are studying.
- Participant observation yields qualitative data.
- The concept of Verstehen (an understanding developed through empathy or close identification) is seen as important in the use of participant observation.

### Practical problems

![Practical problems](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-07/6c2f094a-8948-45e4-b847-6545bc638fed/Betrayel-Trust-Broken-Paper.jpg)

- Practical problems include:
  - Becoming accepted by the group (getting in).
  - Gaining the trust and cooperation of the group (staying in).
  - Leaving the group once the research is concluded (getting out).

### Practical problems cont.

![Practical problems cont.](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2026-01/2b6b325a-eda9-4052-9be1-2b18539e50fa/58f2aa23-ccc6-488d-b334-94129d89b8b5.png)

- The researcher may decide to adopt either: 
  - An overt role within the group (where those being observed are aware of their status as a researcher).
  - A covert role (where they adopt a cover story to hide their real intentions).

### Ethical issues: covert roles

![Ethical issues: covert roles](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/f65f5787-a30b-46c1-a459-b183d6bf817f/right-wrong-ethics-morals-.jpg)

- Ethical issues are certain to arise if the researcher has adopted a covert role, however, this may be partly dealt with by telling the people after the research has been conducted.
- Ethical problems, such as deception, may be justified to protect the researcher, such as with __Patrick’s (1973)__ study of Glasgow gangs.

### Ethical issues: overt roles

![Ethical issues: overt roles](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/9e36a63c-40eb-4c06-b8d9-867770cf3ce0/agree-1728448_1920.jpg)

- From an ethical perspective, an overt role is more acceptable, as it allows people to be aware that they are being studied and to provide informed consent.

### Theoretical issues

![Theoretical issues](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/48aebd73-4676-49b6-97f4-595e3345bb94/writing-write-.jpg)

- One theoretical issue concerns reliability.
- Positivists argue that the data obtained are rarely quantified and are unreliable.
- The second issue concerns validity.
- Participant observation assumes that what the researcher recalls and how they have interpreted the situation is accurate, positivists would argue that this unlikely to be the case.

## Evaluation of Participant Observation

Participant observation is where the researcher attempts to become an accepted member of the group being studied.

### Advantages

![Advantages](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/214652a1-b548-4468-8945-db491b8d0284/writing-paper-words.jpg)

- They study people’s normal everyday behaviour.
- Less likely to impose the sociologist’s own views on the group being studied.
- Allows for the collection of more in-depth, valid qualitative data than other research methods.
- Produces more valid data because there is less chance of the researcher being misled than with other methods.

### Advantages cont.

![Advantages cont.](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/2acf5459-f97d-4548-9327-9859295a0e2a/police-crime-scene-.jpg)

- Gains in-depth insights into the meanings that a social activity has for those involved by seeing through their eyes (Verstehen).
- May be the only valid methods for researching closed groups such as criminal gangs and religious sects.
- Allows for the study of people in their normal everyday lives over a period of time, rather than a ‘snapshot’.

### Disadvantages

![Disadvantages](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/368a76ad-99e2-41ef-be13-48b69e50fe7a/rush-hurry-deadline-time-clock-.jpg)

- Time-consuming and expensive.
- Can be stressful for researchers, especially those in a covert role.
- Data may not be valid or reliable and lack objectivity, according to positivists.
- Overt role may undermine validity via the Hawthorne effect.

### Disadvantages cont.

![Disadvantages cont.](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/c0908cf4-7605-4237-bb59-9f4ac09b4869/left-right-sign.jpg)

- Risk of researchers ‘going native’, that is, becoming so involved that they lose objectivity.
- Only a small group is studied, so may not be representative.
- Covert participant observation is ethically unsound.

## Non-Participant (Structured) Observation

A non-participant observation does not involve the researcher in the activities of those being studied.

### Non-participant observation

![Non-participant observation](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/3fba2487-0107-4ee7-9e33-50edfe5b6f04/checklist-ticklist-tick-list-.jpg)

- A non-participant observation does not involve the researcher in the activities of those being studied.
- It usually involves a checklist of things to observe (the structure), which can then be turned into quantitative data.
- Positivists are more likely to use this method.

### Advantages

![Advantages](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-03/2540cce7-5f8e-4513-b62a-ab4aab2e450b/shutterstock_566238307.jpg)

- Not as time-consuming and cheaper than participant observations.
- Researchers can replicate and check findings.
- Reduced risk of the Hawthorne effect because the researcher is detached and uninvolved.

### Advantages cont.

![Advantages cont.](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-03/f36b7b79-ea0a-4679-9b4c-3e3dee2d7628/shutterstock_151790942.jpg)

- Easy to make comparisons with similar observations, providing quantitative data so that patterns, trends, and causes can be highlighted.
- Consent is easily obtained, so more ethically preferable than participant observations.

### Disadvantages

![Disadvantages](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/6442ee0c-869b-4d37-9356-4584c212e574/binoculars-looking-watching-.jpg)

- Not practical to observe all groups. 
- Very difficult to record all observed incidents.
- The categorisation of observations is influenced by subjective interpretations, so different observers of the same group might record incidents differently.

### Disadvantages cont.

![Disadvantages cont.](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/53994713-67f3-41c4-8fe1-78f6318a89ea/spy-camera-photo-.jpg)

- Risk of Hawthorne effect due to the presence of an observer.
- The use of covert observation devices, such as hidden cameras, are ethically problematic due to the lack of informed consent.
- Only a small group can be observed, so the sample may not be representative.

## Test yourself on Observation

- What type of researcher role is more ethically acceptable?

[Practise this topic for free](https://app.senecalearning.com/classroom/course/73653830-65a6-11e8-9923-5d9eaf994fae/section/33a11b17-89f8-4cce-9776-13c14480cc2d/session)

- Previous topic: [1.3.7 Interviews](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-3-7-interviews.md)
- Next topic: [1.3.9 Case Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-3-9-case-studies.md)

## Sociology: AQA A Level contents

### 1 Theory & Methods
- 1.1 Sociological Theories
  - [1.1.1 Marxism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-1-1-marxism.md)
  - [1.1.2 Feminism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-1-2-feminism.md)
  - [1.1.3 Social Action Theories](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-1-3-social-action-theories.md)
- 1.2 Sociological Methods
  - [1.2.1 Types of Data](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-2-1-types-of-data.md)
  - [1.2.2 Positivism & Interpretivism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-2-2-positivism-and-interpretivism.md)
  - [1.2.3 Research Design](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-2-3-research-design.md)
  - [1.2.4 Research Considerations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-2-4-research-considerations.md)
  - [1.2.5 Values in Research](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-2-5-values-in-research.md)
  - [1.2.6 Modernity & Post-Modernity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-2-6-modernity-and-post-modernity.md)
  - [1.2.7 Sociology as a Science](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-2-7-sociology-as-a-science.md)
  - [1.2.8 Sociology & Social Policy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-2-8-sociology-and-social-policy.md)
  - [1.2.9 End of Topic Test - Sociology Methods & Theories](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-2-9-end-of-topic-test-sociology-methods-and-theories.md)
- 1.3 Sources of Data
  - [1.3.1 Introduction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-3-1-introduction.md)
  - [1.3.2 Experiments](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-3-2-experiments.md)
  - [1.3.3 Surveys](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-3-3-surveys.md)
  - [1.3.4 Longitudinal Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-3-4-longitudinal-studies.md)
  - [1.3.5 Questionnaires](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-3-5-questionnaires.md)
  - [1.3.6 Types of Questionnaires](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-3-6-types-of-questionnaires.md)
  - [1.3.7 Interviews](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-3-7-interviews.md)
  - [1.3.8 Observation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-3-8-observation.md)
  - [1.3.9 Case Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-3-9-case-studies.md)
  - [1.3.10 Documents](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-3-10-documents.md)
  - [1.3.11 Official Statistics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-3-11-official-statistics.md)
  - [1.3.12 End of Topic Test - Sources of Data](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/1-3-12-end-of-topic-test-sources-of-data.md)

### 2 Education with Methods in Context
- 2.1 Role & Function of the Education System
  - [2.1.1 Introduction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/2-1-1-introduction.md)
  - [2.1.2 Functionalist Theories](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/2-1-2-functionalist-theories.md)
  - [2.1.3 Marxist & Feminist Theories](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/2-1-3-marxist-and-feminist-theories.md)
  - [2.1.4 The New Right](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/2-1-4-the-new-right.md)
- 2.2 Educational Achievement
  - [2.2.1 Social Class: Internal Factors](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/2-2-1-social-class-internal-factors.md)
  - [2.2.2 Social Class: External Factors](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/2-2-2-social-class-external-factors.md)
  - [2.2.3 Social Class: Attitudes to Education](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/2-2-3-social-class-attitudes-to-education.md)
  - [2.2.4 Social Class: Difference in Achievement](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/2-2-4-social-class-difference-in-achievement.md)
  - [2.2.5 Gender](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/2-2-5-gender.md)
  - [2.2.6 Ethnicity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/2-2-6-ethnicity.md)
- 2.3 Relationships & Processes Within Schools
  - [2.3.1 Processes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/2-3-1-processes.md)
  - [2.3.2 Labelling](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/2-3-2-labelling.md)
  - [2.3.3 Categorisations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/2-3-3-categorisations.md)
  - [2.3.4 Student Experience](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/2-3-4-student-experience.md)
  - [2.3.5 End of Topic Test -Education with Methods](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/2-3-5-end-of-topic-test-education-with-methods.md)
- 2.4 Educational Policies
  - [2.4.1 Equality](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/2-4-1-equality.md)
  - [2.4.2 Privatisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/2-4-2-privatisation.md)
  - [2.4.3 Marketisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/2-4-3-marketisation.md)
  - [2.4.4 Government Policies by Party](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/2-4-4-government-policies-by-party.md)
  - [2.4.5 Globalisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/2-4-5-globalisation.md)
  - [2.4.6 End of Topic Test- Educational Policies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/2-4-6-end-of-topic-test-educational-policies.md)
  - [2.4.7 Practice Exam Question - Social Policies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/2-4-7-practice-exam-question-social-policies.md)

### 3 Option 1: Culture & Identity
- 3.1 Conceptions of Culture
  - [3.1.1 Culture](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-1-1-culture.md)
  - [3.1.2 Dominant vs Subculture](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-1-2-dominant-vs-subculture.md)
  - [3.1.3 Subcultures](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-1-3-subcultures.md)
  - [3.1.4 Mass Culture](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-1-4-mass-culture.md)
  - [3.1.5 Popular Culture](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-1-5-popular-culture.md)
  - [3.1.6 Global Culture](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-1-6-global-culture.md)
  - [3.1.7 End of Topic Test - Culture and Identity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-1-7-end-of-topic-test-culture-and-identity.md)
- 3.2 Identity & Socialisation
  - [3.2.1 Identities](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-2-1-identities.md)
  - [3.2.2 Socialisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-2-2-socialisation.md)
  - [3.2.3 Secondary Socialisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-2-3-secondary-socialisation.md)
  - [3.2.4 Theories of Socialisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-2-4-theories-of-socialisation.md)
  - [3.2.5 End of Topic Test - Identity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-2-5-end-of-topic-test-identity.md)
  - [3.2.6 Practice Exam Question - Socialisation & Equality](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-2-6-practice-exam-question-socialisation-and-equality.md)
- 3.3 Social Identity
  - [3.3.1 Social Class](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-3-1-social-class.md)
  - [3.3.2 Upper & Middle Class](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-3-2-upper-and-middle-class.md)
  - [3.3.3 Working & Underclass](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-3-3-working-and-underclass.md)
  - [3.3.4 Social Class Evaluation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-3-4-social-class-evaluation.md)
  - [3.3.5 Gender](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-3-5-gender.md)
  - [3.3.6 Changing Gender Identities](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-3-6-changing-gender-identities.md)
  - [3.3.7 Ethnicity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-3-7-ethnicity.md)
  - [3.3.8 Age](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-3-8-age.md)
  - [3.3.9 Disability](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-3-9-disability.md)
  - [3.3.10 Nationality](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-3-10-nationality.md)
  - [3.3.11 End of Topic Test - Social Identity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-3-11-end-of-topic-test-social-identity.md)
- 3.4 Production, Consumption & Globalisation
  - [3.4.1 Production & Consumption](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-4-1-production-and-consumption.md)
  - [3.4.2 Globalisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-4-2-globalisation.md)
  - [3.4.3 Evaluation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-4-3-evaluation.md)
  - [3.4.4 End of Topic Test - Production](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/3-4-4-end-of-topic-test-production.md)

### 4 Option 1: Families & Households
- 4.1 Families & Households
  - [4.1.1 Definitions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-1-1-definitions.md)
  - [4.1.2 Functionalist & New Right Perspectives](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-1-2-functionalist-and-new-right-perspectives.md)
  - [4.1.3 Marxist & Feminist Perspectives](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-1-3-marxist-and-feminist-perspectives.md)
  - [4.1.4 Postmodernist Perspective](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-1-4-postmodernist-perspective.md)
  - [4.1.5 End of Topic Test - Families & Households](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-1-5-end-of-topic-test-families-and-households.md)
  - [4.1.6 Practice Exam Question - Function of Family](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-1-6-practice-exam-question-function-of-family.md)
- 4.2 Changing Patterns
  - [4.2.1 Marriage](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-2-1-marriage.md)
  - [4.2.2 Divorce](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-2-2-divorce.md)
  - [4.2.3 LAT Relationships](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-2-3-lat-relationships.md)
  - [4.2.4 Child-Bearing](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-2-4-child-bearing.md)
  - [4.2.5 Lone Parenthood](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-2-5-lone-parenthood.md)
  - [4.2.6 Diversity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-2-6-diversity.md)
  - [4.2.7 The Sociology of Personal Life](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-2-7-the-sociology-of-personal-life.md)
  - [4.2.8 Government Policies Post-WW2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-2-8-government-policies-post-ww2.md)
  - [4.2.9 End of Topic Test - Changing Patterns](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-2-9-end-of-topic-test-changing-patterns.md)
- 4.3 The Symmetrical Family
  - [4.3.1 The Symmetrical Family](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-3-1-the-symmetrical-family.md)
  - [4.3.2 Evaluation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-3-2-evaluation.md)
- 4.4 Children & Childhood
  - [4.4.1 Childhood](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-4-1-childhood.md)
  - [4.4.2 Childhood in the UK](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-4-2-childhood-in-the-uk.md)
  - [4.4.3 Childhood as a Social Construct](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-4-3-childhood-as-a-social-construct.md)
  - [4.4.4 The Disappearance of Childhood](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-4-4-the-disappearance-of-childhood.md)
  - [4.4.5 Child Abuse](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-4-5-child-abuse.md)
  - [4.4.6 Domestic Violence](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-4-6-domestic-violence.md)
  - [4.4.7 End of Topic Test - Family & Childhood](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-4-7-end-of-topic-test-family-and-childhood.md)
- 4.5 Demographic Trends UK
  - [4.5.1 Introduction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-5-1-introduction.md)
  - [4.5.2 Birth Rates](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-5-2-birth-rates.md)
  - [4.5.3 Death Rates](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-5-3-death-rates.md)
  - [4.5.4 The Ageing Population](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-5-4-the-ageing-population.md)
  - [4.5.5 Studies on the Ageing Population](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-5-5-studies-on-the-ageing-population.md)
  - [4.5.6 Migration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-5-6-migration.md)
  - [4.5.7 Globalisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-5-7-globalisation.md)
  - [4.5.8 End of Topic Test - Demographics UK](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/4-5-8-end-of-topic-test-demographics-uk.md)

### 5 Option 1: Health
- 5.1 Social Constructions
  - [5.1.1 The Body](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/5-1-1-the-body.md)
  - [5.1.2 Health, Illness & Disease](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/5-1-2-health-illness-and-disease.md)
  - [5.1.3 Disability](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/5-1-3-disability.md)
  - [5.1.4 Models of Health & Illness](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/5-1-4-models-of-health-and-illness.md)
  - [5.1.5 End of Topic Test - Social Constructions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/5-1-5-end-of-topic-test-social-constructions.md)
- 5.2 Social Distribution of Healthcare
  - [5.2.1 Social Class](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/5-2-1-social-class.md)
  - [5.2.2 Gender](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/5-2-2-gender.md)
  - [5.2.3 Ethnicity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/5-2-3-ethnicity.md)
  - [5.2.4 Regional](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/5-2-4-regional.md)
- 5.3 Provision & Access to Healthcare
  - [5.3.1 The NHS](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/5-3-1-the-nhs.md)
  - [5.3.2 Inequalities in Provision](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/5-3-2-inequalities-in-provision.md)
  - [5.3.3 Sociological Explanations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/5-3-3-sociological-explanations.md)
  - [5.3.4 Inequalities in Access](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/5-3-4-inequalities-in-access.md)
  - [5.3.5 Inequalities in Access 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/5-3-5-inequalities-in-access-2.md)
  - [5.3.6 End of Topic Test - Distribution Health](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/5-3-6-end-of-topic-test-distribution-health.md)
- 5.4 Mental Health
  - [5.4.1 The Biomedical Approach](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/5-4-1-the-biomedical-approach.md)
  - [5.4.2 Social Patterns](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/5-4-2-social-patterns.md)
  - [5.4.3 Social Constructionist Approach](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/5-4-3-social-constructionist-approach.md)
- 5.5 The Globalised Health Industry
  - [5.5.1 The Functionalist Approach](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/5-5-1-the-functionalist-approach.md)
  - [5.5.2 The Postmodernist Approach](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/5-5-2-the-postmodernist-approach.md)
  - [5.5.3 The Globalised Health Industry](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/5-5-3-the-globalised-health-industry.md)
  - [5.5.4 End of Topic Test - Mental Health & Globalisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/5-5-4-end-of-topic-test-mental-health-and-globalisation.md)

### 6 Option 1: Work, Poverty & Welfare
- 6.1 Poverty & Wealth
  - [6.1.1 Types of Poverty](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/6-1-1-types-of-poverty.md)
  - [6.1.2 Types of Poverty 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/6-1-2-types-of-poverty-2.md)
  - [6.1.3 Distribution of Wealth UK](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/6-1-3-distribution-of-wealth-uk.md)
  - [6.1.4 Sociological Theories](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/6-1-4-sociological-theories.md)
  - [6.1.5 Sociological Theories 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/6-1-5-sociological-theories-2.md)
  - [6.1.6 Distribution of Poverty UK](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/6-1-6-distribution-of-poverty-uk.md)
  - [6.1.7 End of Topic Test - Poverty & Wealth](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/6-1-7-end-of-topic-test-poverty-and-wealth.md)
- 6.2 Welfare
  - [6.2.1 The Welfare State](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/6-2-1-the-welfare-state.md)
  - [6.2.2 Theoretical Approaches to Welfare](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/6-2-2-theoretical-approaches-to-welfare.md)
- 6.3 Labour Process
  - [6.3.1 Nature of Work](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/6-3-1-nature-of-work.md)
  - [6.3.2 Technology & Control](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/6-3-2-technology-and-control.md)
  - [6.3.3 Work & Life](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/6-3-3-work-and-life.md)
  - [6.3.4 The Effects of Globalisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/6-3-4-the-effects-of-globalisation.md)
  - [6.3.5 Globalisation & Worklessness](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/6-3-5-globalisation-and-worklessness.md)
  - [6.3.6 End of Topic Test - Welfare & Labour](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/6-3-6-end-of-topic-test-welfare-and-labour.md)

### 7 Option 2: Beliefs in Society
- 7.1 Ideology, Science & Religion
  - [7.1.1 Types of Religion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/7-1-1-types-of-religion.md)
  - [7.1.2 Ideology & Belief Systems](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/7-1-2-ideology-and-belief-systems.md)
  - [7.1.3 Social Stability & Religion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/7-1-3-social-stability-and-religion.md)
  - [7.1.4 Social Change & Religion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/7-1-4-social-change-and-religion.md)
  - [7.1.5 End of Topic Test - Ideology, Science & Religion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/7-1-5-end-of-topic-test-ideology-science-and-religion.md)
- 7.2 Religious Movements
  - [7.2.1 Religious Organisations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/7-2-1-religious-organisations.md)
  - [7.2.2 New Religious Movements](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/7-2-2-new-religious-movements.md)
  - [7.2.3 New Age Movements](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/7-2-3-new-age-movements.md)
  - [7.2.4 Practice Exam Question - Growth of NRMs](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/7-2-4-practice-exam-question-growth-of-nrms.md)
- 7.3 Society & Religion
  - [7.3.1 Social Groups & Religion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/7-3-1-social-groups-and-religion.md)
  - [7.3.2 Gender & Religion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/7-3-2-gender-and-religion.md)
  - [7.3.3 End of Topic Test- Religious Movements & Society](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/7-3-3-end-of-topic-test-religious-movements-and-society.md)
- 7.4 Contemporary Religion
  - [7.4.1 Secularisation UK](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/7-4-1-secularisation-uk.md)
  - [7.4.2 Against Secularisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/7-4-2-against-secularisation.md)
  - [7.4.3 Secularisation US](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/7-4-3-secularisation-us.md)
  - [7.4.4 Fundamentalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/7-4-4-fundamentalism.md)
  - [7.4.5 Economic Development & Religion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/7-4-5-economic-development-and-religion.md)
  - [7.4.6 End of Topic - Contemporary Religion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/7-4-6-end-of-topic-contemporary-religion.md)

### 8 Option 2: Global Development
- 8.1 Development, Underdevelopment & Global Inequality
  - [8.1.1 Development](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/8-1-1-development.md)
  - [8.1.2 Underdevelopment & Global Inequality](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/8-1-2-underdevelopment-and-global-inequality.md)
- 8.2 Globalisation & Global Organisations
  - [8.2.1 Globalisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/8-2-1-globalisation.md)
  - [8.2.2 Transnational Corporations & International Agency](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/8-2-2-transnational-corporations-and-international-agency.md)
  - [8.2.3 Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/8-2-3-non-governmental-organisations-ngos.md)
- 8.3 Aid, Trade, Industrialisation, Urbanisation
  - [8.3.1 Development: Aid & Trade](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/8-3-1-development-aid-and-trade.md)
  - [8.3.2 Development: Industrialisation & Urbanisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/8-3-2-development-industrialisation-and-urbanisation.md)
  - [8.3.3 Development: Environment & War](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/8-3-3-development-environment-and-war.md)

### 9 Option 2: The Media
- 9.1 Contemporary Media
  - [9.1.1 New Media](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/9-1-1-new-media.md)
  - [9.1.2 Control of the Media](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/9-1-2-control-of-the-media.md)
  - [9.1.3 Sociological Approaches: New Media](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/9-1-3-sociological-approaches-new-media.md)
  - [9.1.4 Globalisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/9-1-4-globalisation.md)
  - [9.1.5 News Selection](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/9-1-5-news-selection.md)
  - [9.1.6 Moral Panics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/9-1-6-moral-panics.md)
  - [9.1.7 End of Topic Test - Contemporary Media](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/9-1-7-end-of-topic-test-contemporary-media.md)
- 9.2 Media Representations
  - [9.2.1 Age](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/9-2-1-age.md)
  - [9.2.2 Social Class & Ethnicity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/9-2-2-social-class-and-ethnicity.md)
  - [9.2.3 Gender](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/9-2-3-gender.md)
  - [9.2.4 Sexuality & Disability](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/9-2-4-sexuality-and-disability.md)
  - [9.2.5 Practice Exam Questions - Presentation of Women](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/9-2-5-practice-exam-questions-presentation-of-women.md)
- 9.3 Audiences
  - [9.3.1 Media Theories](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/9-3-1-media-theories.md)
  - [9.3.2 Media Theories 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/9-3-2-media-theories-2.md)
  - [9.3.3 Media Representations & Audiences](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/9-3-3-media-representations-and-audiences.md)

### 10 Crime & Deviance
- 10.1 Crime & Society
  - [10.1.1 Functionalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/10-1-1-functionalism.md)
  - [10.1.2 Subcultural Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/10-1-2-subcultural-theory.md)
  - [10.1.3 Marxism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/10-1-3-marxism.md)
  - [10.1.4 Moral Entrepreneurs](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/10-1-4-moral-entrepreneurs.md)
  - [10.1.5 Labelling Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/10-1-5-labelling-theory.md)
  - [10.1.6 Realism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/10-1-6-realism.md)
  - [10.1.7 Other Approaches](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/10-1-7-other-approaches.md)
  - [10.1.8 End of Topic Test - Crime & Society](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/10-1-8-end-of-topic-test-crime-and-society.md)
  - [10.1.9 Practice Exam Questions - Social Construction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/10-1-9-practice-exam-questions-social-construction.md)
- 10.2 Social Distribution of Crime
  - [10.2.1 Ethnicity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/10-2-1-ethnicity.md)
  - [10.2.2 Gender](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/10-2-2-gender.md)
  - [10.2.3 Globalisation & Crime](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/10-2-3-globalisation-and-crime.md)
  - [10.2.4 Media & Crime](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/10-2-4-media-and-crime.md)
  - [10.2.5 Types of Crimes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/10-2-5-types-of-crimes.md)
  - [10.2.6 End of Topic Test - Social Distribution of Crime](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/10-2-6-end-of-topic-test-social-distribution-of-crime.md)
- 10.3 Prevention & Punishment
  - [10.3.1 Surveillance](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/10-3-1-surveillance.md)
  - [10.3.2 Prevention](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/10-3-2-prevention.md)
  - [10.3.3 Punishment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/10-3-3-punishment.md)
  - [10.3.4 Victimology](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/10-3-4-victimology.md)
  - [10.3.5 End of Topic Test - Prevention & Punishment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/sociology/aqa/10-3-5-end-of-topic-test-prevention-and-punishment.md)