Source: https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-6-ethics

[Revision notes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes.md) › [A Level](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level.md) › [Psychology](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology.md) › [AQA](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa.md) › Ethics

# Ethics

Psychology: AQA A Level, topic 7.2.6

## Ethics

Ethics is a very important and controversial topic in psychology - participants must consent to all that they could be subjected to and sometimes animal subject must be used instead.

### Ethics in psychology

![Ethics in psychology](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/ca2831f0-ecc6-4d3b-9e7a-155589fca58e/survey-clipboard.jpg)

- Today, scientists agree that good research is ethical in nature and is guided by a basic respect for human dignity and safety.
- But this has not always been the case.
- Modern researchers must show that the research they perform is ethically sound. 
- Any experiment involving the participation of human subjects is governed by extensive, strict guidelines designed to make sure that the experiment does not result in harm.

### Consent

![Consent](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/a7f49ec8-a3a5-49d2-a9ba-8e13154937f7/psychologist-psychology-counselling.jpg)

- Each participant must sign an informed consent form before they can participate in the experiment. 
- An informed consent form provides a written description of what participants can expect during the experiment, including potential risks and implications of the research. 
- It also lets participants know that their involvement is completely voluntary and can be discontinued without penalty at any time.

### Consent cont.

![Consent cont.](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-03/319742f0-9b2b-49ee-8420-55e629226d02/shutterstock_330860588.jpg)

- Furthermore, the informed consent guarantees that any data collected in the experiment will remain completely confidential.
- If a research participant is under the age of 18, their parents or legal guardians are required to sign the informed consent form.

### Deception

![Deception](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/5512cbce-d873-4b38-a0de-5a57c8712c31/psychologist-therapy-psychology-depression.jpg)

- While the informed consent form should be as honest as possible, sometimes deception is necessary to prevent participants’ knowledge of the exact research question from affecting the results of the study. 
- Deception involves purposely misleading experiment participants to maintain the integrity of the experiment, but not to the point where the deception could be considered harmful. 
- In cases where deception is involved, participants must receive a full debriefing upon conclusion of the study.

### Animal studies

![Animal studies](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/a7eaf883-0b33-4aa7-9909-bc4ffbe9f8dc/dog-cute-pose.jpg)

- Many psychologists conduct research involving animal subjects. 
- Often, these researchers use rodents as the subjects of their experiments. 
- This does not mean that animal researchers are immune to ethical concerns. The humane and ethical treatment of animal research subjects is a critical aspect of this type of research. 
- Researchers must design their experiments to minimise any pain or distress experienced by animals serving as research subjects.

## Code of Ethics

Researchers must follow a code of ethics, making sure that participants are treated with respect and not harmed.

### Preventing harm

![Preventing harm](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/1f9b8f1b-10ff-4a5c-a038-7042979c9c0f/man-sad-depression-depressed.jpg)

- Researchers must follow a code of ethics. 
- The purpose of these is to make sure that participants are treated with respect and not harmed.
- The British Psychology Society ethical guideline states that ‘Investigators have a primary responsibility to protect participants from physical and mental harm during the investigation’.
- The research should not put participants under unreasonable stress, or traumatise or humiliate them.

### Preventing harm balance

![Preventing harm balance](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/chemistry/6.2.1%20Reversible%20reactions%20and%20energy%20changes/weight-scale-2402966_640.jpg)

- But no investigation is risk free; the guiding principle is that risks should be no greater than the risks participants are exposed to in their normal lifestyles. Participants should be encouraged to contact the investigator after the research if they have any worries or concerns.  The investigator has a responsibility to detect and remove any negative consequences of the research.

### Informed consent

![Informed consent](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/0899cdbc-7f0e-42fa-b8a9-0e8280b78456/psychologist-therapy.jpg)

- Participants must give their consent to take part in research and this consent must be ‘informed’. This means that information must be made available on which to base a decision to participate or not.
- Participants should be told what they are letting themselves in for. Only then are they in a position to give informed consent.

### Consent situations

![Consent situations](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2020-05/06d0e36b-26a9-4309-b56b-94c3cbe4f13d/routemaster.jpg)

- To study participants without consent would be ethically acceptable so long as what happens to the participants could just as likely happen to them in everyday life. 
 - E.g. observation in naturalistic setting such as bus queues. People in bus queues may be observed by anyone. 
- In the case of young people under 16, consent should also be obtained from their parents.

### Problem with informed consent

![Problem with informed consent](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2020-06/00f334f2-2831-468f-a750-e9633d31d684/danger-sign-.jpg)

- A major problem with informed consent is the possibility that the researcher will ‘give the game away’ and thus influence participants’ behaviour.
- As a result, a case can be made for withholding information, for example __Milgram (1963)__ were telling the participants that the study was about obedience would have rendered the research pointless.

### Participant data

![Participant data](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-05/5a9662ab-b70b-4e5b-911b-d70513b89d02/shutterstock_747571558.jpg)

- Participant data also needs to be handled carefully. Their results should be kept securely, and any publication must preserve their anonymity (for example, not publishing participant names).

### British Psychological Society

![British Psychological Society](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/c3ff06e1-dc31-4e18-9b55-fad2424fa82f/ethics-committee-cctv-guard.jpg)

- In the UK, the British Psychological Society (BPS) provides an ethical code of conduct.
- This is the professional body for all types of psychologist, including psychology researchers.

## Applying Ethical Standards in Research

When designing the methodology of their study, researchers must follow ethical procedures such as briefing and debriefing.

### Ethical design

![Ethical design](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/ec3e821c-bdcc-4011-87b1-19b3aea313c2/woman-sad-depressed-depression.jpg)

- Studies must be designed in such a way that they will not risk physical or psychological harm to participants beyond the risks that people experience in everyday life. 
- The mild stress that comes with doing tasks such as memory tests are acceptable because they are similar to the stresses of school or university. 
- Researchers usually ask permission to run a study by proposing it to their organisation’s ethics board.

### Informed consent

![Informed consent](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/14c02c6f-1dae-49f9-a6ac-f05305e1aea5/psychology-psychologist-therapy-doctor.jpg)

- All participants must give their informed consent to take part in a study:
 - This means that they don’t just give general agreement to participate, but must fully understand what they are agreeing to. 
 - Usually, this involves them being given an information sheet which briefs them on the aim of the study, how long it will take and what they will have to do.
 - It is unethical to deceive participants. But it may be considered impossible to research an issue without some mild deception.

### Consent form

![Consent form](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/ca2831f0-ecc6-4d3b-9e7a-155589fca58e/survey-clipboard.jpg)

- After reading an information sheet, participants are then asked to sign a consent form. 
- For some experiments, this may be done on a computer screen.

### Withdrawal

![Withdrawal](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/9ae72e6f-2c80-456a-b748-ffe317cabe65/leaving-fired-getting-.jpg)

- Participants are allowed to stop and withdraw during the study any time they wish and for any reason, and must be aware of this fact.

### Debriefing

![Debriefing](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/dd44105f-bb4d-483d-9e99-71edb8c4706d/group-talking.jpg)

- At the end of the study, participants are debriefed. 
- At this point, they may be given more information about the study, including the hypothesis, and asked if they have any questions.

### Late withdrawal

![Late withdrawal](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/61d41c25-a8c0-4b32-b101-5487ab592e7a/computer-code-.jpg)

- A participant may decide at a later point that they wish to withdraw their consent. 
- They must be told that they have a right to withdraw at any point, and should be given contact details so that they can withdraw retrospectively. 
- If they do so, their data must be deleted.

### Confidentiality

![Confidentiality](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2019-07/dfed4093-d152-48c2-a4d6-e85df00cd2f9/question-2736480_1920.jpg)

- Participants in research must be anonymous and no personal details should be included in the study which would enable them to be identified. 
- Any personal data collected must be securely stored and destroyed when no longer required as specified by Data Protection Act 2018 (GDPR). 
- Protection from harm involves confidentiality.

### Confidentiality - personal questions

![Confidentiality - personal questions](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/e4dc28ad-27f8-4c91-8820-1dc5aed3fbcc/teach-teacher-learn-.jpg)

- Participants may be asked personal questions. They must be told that there is no need to answer these questions and, if they do that their answers will be treated in confidence.  That is, they should remain anonymous. 
- Invasion of privacy can result in unease or distress. 
- But certain laws, for example child protection, may overrule this, as a teacher has a duty to disclose anything related to child protection to the relevant authorities and cannot promise confidentiality to a student.

## Test yourself on Ethics

- What makes ethical research so important?
- What does a consent form have to include?
- What Must Researchers Do Before Conducting Experiments?
- What two kinds of harm should researchers prevent?
- Who sets the code of conduct for psychologists in the UK?

[Practise this topic for free](https://app.senecalearning.com/classroom/course/db5cd155-3f4b-40cb-a9f9-8c314f118345/section/fa3f33fb-d502-4dcd-9650-6fa33f7dc42b/session)

- Previous topic: [7.2.5 Demand Characteristics & Investigator Effects](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-5-demand-characteristics-and-investigator-effects.md)
- Next topic: [7.2.7 Limitations of Ethical Guidelines](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-7-limitations-of-ethical-guidelines.md)

## Psychology: AQA A Level contents

### 1 Social Influence
- 1.1 Social Influence
  - [1.1.1 Conformity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-1-conformity.md)
  - [1.1.2 Jenness' Conformity Study](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-2-jenness-conformity-study.md)
  - [1.1.3 Asch (1951)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-3-asch-1951.md)
  - [1.1.4 Sherif (1935)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-4-sherif-1935.md)
  - [1.1.5 Conformity to Social Roles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-5-conformity-to-social-roles.md)
  - [1.1.6 End of Topic Test - Conformity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-6-end-of-topic-test-conformity.md)
  - [1.1.7 Obedience](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-7-obedience.md)
  - [1.1.8 Analysing Milgram's Experiment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-8-analysing-milgrams-experiment.md)
  - [1.1.9 Agentic State & Legitimate Authority](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-9-agentic-state-and-legitimate-authority.md)
  - [1.1.10 Variables of Obedience](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-10-variables-of-obedience.md)
  - [1.1.11 Resistance to Social Influence](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-11-resistance-to-social-influence.md)
  - [1.1.12 Minority Influence & Social Change](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-12-minority-influence-and-social-change.md)
  - [1.1.13 Minority Influence & Social Impact Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-13-minority-influence-and-social-impact-theory.md)
  - [1.1.14 End of Topic Test - Social Influences](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-14-end-of-topic-test-social-influences.md)
  - [1.1.15 Exam-Style Question - Conformity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-15-exam-style-question-conformity.md)
  - [1.1.16 Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Social Influence](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-16-top-grade-ao2ao3-social-influence.md)

### 2 Memory
- 2.1 Memory
  - [2.1.1 Multi-Store Model of Memory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-1-multi-store-model-of-memory.md)
  - [2.1.2 Short-Term vs Long-Term Memory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-2-short-term-vs-long-term-memory.md)
  - [2.1.3 Support for the Multi-Store Model of Memory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-3-support-for-the-multi-store-model-of-memory.md)
  - [2.1.4 Duration Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-4-duration-studies.md)
  - [2.1.5 Capacity Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-5-capacity-studies.md)
  - [2.1.6 Coding Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-6-coding-studies.md)
  - [2.1.7 The Working Memory Model](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-7-the-working-memory-model.md)
  - [2.1.8 The Working Memory Model 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-8-the-working-memory-model-2.md)
  - [2.1.9 Support for the Working Memory Model](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-9-support-for-the-working-memory-model.md)
  - [2.1.10 Explanations for Forgetting](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-10-explanations-for-forgetting.md)
  - [2.1.11 Studies on Interference](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-11-studies-on-interference.md)
  - [2.1.12 Cue-Dependent Forgetting](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-12-cue-dependent-forgetting.md)
  - [2.1.13 Eyewitness Testimony - Loftus & Palmer](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-13-eyewitness-testimony-loftus-and-palmer.md)
  - [2.1.14 Eyewitness Testimony - Loftus](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-14-eyewitness-testimony-loftus.md)
  - [2.1.15 Eyewitness Testimony - Post-Event Discussion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-15-eyewitness-testimony-post-event-discussion.md)
  - [2.1.16 Eyewitness Testimony - Age & Anxiety](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-16-eyewitness-testimony-age-and-anxiety.md)
  - [2.1.17 Cognitive Interview](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-17-cognitive-interview.md)
  - [2.1.18 Cognitive Interview - Geiselman & Fisher](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-18-cognitive-interview-geiselman-and-fisher.md)
  - [2.1.19 End of Topic Test - Memory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-19-end-of-topic-test-memory.md)
  - [2.1.20 Exam-Style Question - Memory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-20-exam-style-question-memory.md)

### 3 Attachment
- 3.1 Attachment
  - [3.1.1 The Concept of Attachment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-1-the-concept-of-attachment.md)
  - [3.1.2 Animal Studies of Attachment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-2-animal-studies-of-attachment.md)
  - [3.1.3 Explanations of Attachment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-3-explanations-of-attachment.md)
  - [3.1.4 Attachment Types - Strange Situation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-4-attachment-types-strange-situation.md)
  - [3.1.5 Cultural Differences in Attachment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-5-cultural-differences-in-attachment.md)
  - [3.1.6 Disruption of Attachment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-6-disruption-of-attachment.md)
  - [3.1.7 Disruption of Attachment - Privation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-7-disruption-of-attachment-privation.md)
  - [3.1.8 Overcoming the Effects of Disruption](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-8-overcoming-the-effects-of-disruption.md)
  - [3.1.9 The Effects of Institutionalisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-9-the-effects-of-institutionalisation.md)
  - [3.1.10 Early Attachment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-10-early-attachment.md)
  - [3.1.11 Critical Period of Attachment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-11-critical-period-of-attachment.md)
  - [3.1.12 End of Topic Test - Attachment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-12-end-of-topic-test-attachment.md)
  - [3.1.13 Exam-Style Question - Attachment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-13-exam-style-question-attachment.md)
  - [3.1.14 Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Attachment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-14-top-grade-ao2ao3-attachment.md)

### 4 Clinical Psychology & Mental Health
- 4.1 Clinical Psychology & Mental Health
  - [4.1.1 Deviation from Social Norms](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-1-deviation-from-social-norms.md)
  - [4.1.2 Deviation from Social Norms 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-2-deviation-from-social-norms-2.md)
  - [4.1.3 Phobias, Depression & OCD](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-3-phobias-depression-and-ocd.md)
  - [4.1.4 Phobias: Behavioural Approach](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-4-phobias-behavioural-approach.md)
  - [4.1.5 Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-5-evaluation-of-behavioural-explanations-of-phobias.md)
  - [4.1.6 Depression: Cognitive Approach](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-6-depression-cognitive-approach.md)
  - [4.1.7 OCD: Biological Approach](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-7-ocd-biological-approach.md)
  - [4.1.8 Evidence for the Biological Approach](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-8-evidence-for-the-biological-approach.md)
  - [4.1.9 End of Topic Test - Psychopathy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-9-end-of-topic-test-psychopathy.md)
  - [4.1.10 Exam-Style Question - Phobias](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-10-exam-style-question-phobias.md)
  - [4.1.11 Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-11-top-grade-ao2ao3-psychopathology.md)
  - [4.1.12 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Phobia vs Fear](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-12-diagnostic-misconceptions-phobia-vs-fear.md)
  - [4.1.13 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Depression & Self-Harm](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-13-diagnostic-misconceptions-depression-and-self-harm.md)
  - [4.1.14 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Desensitisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-14-diagnostic-misconceptions-desensitisation.md)

### 5 Approaches in Psychology
- 5.1 Approaches in Psychology
  - [5.1.1 The Behaviourist Approach - Classical Conditioning](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-1-the-behaviourist-approach-classical-conditioning.md)
  - [5.1.2 Pavlov's Experiment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-2-pavlovs-experiment.md)
  - [5.1.3 Little Albert Study](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-3-little-albert-study.md)
  - [5.1.4 The Behaviourist Approach - Operant Conditioning](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-4-the-behaviourist-approach-operant-conditioning.md)
  - [5.1.5 Social Learning Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-5-social-learning-theory.md)
  - [5.1.6 The Cognitive Approach 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-6-the-cognitive-approach-1.md)
  - [5.1.7 The Cognitive Approach 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-7-the-cognitive-approach-2.md)
  - [5.1.8 The Biological Approach](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-8-the-biological-approach.md)
  - [5.1.9 The Biological Approach 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-9-the-biological-approach-2.md)
  - [5.1.10 Gottesman (1991) - Twin Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-10-gottesman-1991-twin-studies.md)
  - [5.1.11 Brain Scanning](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-11-brain-scanning.md)
  - [5.1.12 Structure of Personality & Little Hans](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-12-structure-of-personality-and-little-hans.md)
  - [5.1.13 The Psychodynamic Approach (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-13-the-psychodynamic-approach-a2-only.md)
  - [5.1.14 Humanistic Psychology (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-14-humanistic-psychology-a2-only.md)
  - [5.1.15 Aronoff (1957) (A2 Only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-15-aronoff-1957-a2-only.md)
  - [5.1.16 End of Topic Test - Approaches](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-16-end-of-topic-test-approaches.md)
- 5.2 Comparison of Approaches (A2 only)
  - [5.2.1 Psychodynamic Approach](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-2-1-psychodynamic-approach.md)
  - [5.2.2 Cognitive Approach](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-2-2-cognitive-approach.md)
  - [5.2.3 Biological Approach](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-2-3-biological-approach.md)
  - [5.2.4 Behavioural Approach](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-2-4-behavioural-approach.md)
  - [5.2.5 End of Topic Test - Comparison of Approaches](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-2-5-end-of-topic-test-comparison-of-approaches.md)

### 6 Biopsychology
- 6.1 Biopsychology
  - [6.1.1 Nervous System Divisions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/6-1-1-nervous-system-divisions.md)
  - [6.1.2 Neuron Structure & Function](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/6-1-2-neuron-structure-and-function.md)
  - [6.1.3 Neurotransmitters](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/6-1-3-neurotransmitters.md)
  - [6.1.4 Endocrine System Function](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/6-1-4-endocrine-system-function.md)
  - [6.1.5 Fight or Flight Response](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/6-1-5-fight-or-flight-response.md)
  - [6.1.6 The Brain (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/6-1-6-the-brain-a2-only.md)
  - [6.1.7 Localisation of Brain Function (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/6-1-7-localisation-of-brain-function-a2-only.md)
  - [6.1.8 Studying the Brain (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/6-1-8-studying-the-brain-a2-only.md)
  - [6.1.9 CIMT (A2 Only) & Postmortem](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/6-1-9-cimt-a2-only-and-postmortem.md)
  - [6.1.10 Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Biopsychology](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/6-1-10-top-grade-ao2ao3-biopsychology.md)
  - [6.1.11 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Plasticity & Recovery](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/6-1-11-diagnostic-misconceptions-plasticity-and-recovery.md)
  - [6.1.12 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Endogenous Pacemakers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/6-1-12-diagnostic-misconceptions-endogenous-pacemakers.md)
  - [6.1.13 End of Topic Test - Biopsychology](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/6-1-13-end-of-topic-test-biopsychology.md)

### 7 Research Methods
- 7.1 Research Methods
  - [7.1.1 Experimental Method](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-1-1-experimental-method.md)
  - [7.1.2 Observational Techniques](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-1-2-observational-techniques.md)
  - [7.1.3 Covert, Overt & Controlled Observation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-1-3-covert-overt-and-controlled-observation.md)
  - [7.1.4 Self-Report Techniques](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-1-4-self-report-techniques.md)
  - [7.1.5 Correlations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-1-5-correlations.md)
  - [7.1.6 Exam-Style Question - Research Methods](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-1-6-exam-style-question-research-methods.md)
  - [7.1.7 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Sign Test](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-1-7-diagnostic-misconceptions-sign-test.md)
  - [7.1.8 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Content & Thematic](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-1-8-diagnostic-misconceptions-content-and-thematic.md)
  - [7.1.9 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Valid vs Reliable](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-1-9-diagnostic-misconceptions-valid-vs-reliable.md)
  - [7.1.10 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Confounding Variable](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-1-10-diagnostic-misconceptions-confounding-variable.md)
  - [7.1.11 End of Topic Test - Research Methods](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-1-11-end-of-topic-test-research-methods.md)
- 7.2 Scientific Processes
  - [7.2.1 Aims, Hypotheses & Sampling](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-1-aims-hypotheses-and-sampling.md)
  - [7.2.2 Pilot Studies & Design](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-2-pilot-studies-and-design.md)
  - [7.2.3 Questionnaires](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-3-questionnaires.md)
  - [7.2.4 Variables & Control](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-4-variables-and-control.md)
  - [7.2.5 Demand Characteristics & Investigator Effects](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-5-demand-characteristics-and-investigator-effects.md)
  - [7.2.6 Ethics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-6-ethics.md)
  - [7.2.7 Limitations of Ethical Guidelines](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-7-limitations-of-ethical-guidelines.md)
  - [7.2.8 Consent & Protection from Harm Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-8-consent-and-protection-from-harm-studies.md)
  - [7.2.9 Peer Review & The Economy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-9-peer-review-and-the-economy.md)
  - [7.2.10 Validity (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-10-validity-a2-only.md)
  - [7.2.11 Reliability (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-11-reliability-a2-only.md)
  - [7.2.12 Features of Science (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-12-features-of-science-a2-only.md)
  - [7.2.13 Paradigms & Falsifiability (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-13-paradigms-and-falsifiability-a2-only.md)
  - [7.2.14 Scientific Report (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-14-scientific-report-a2-only.md)
  - [7.2.15 Scientific Report 2 (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-15-scientific-report-2-a2-only.md)
  - [7.2.16 End of Topic Test - Scientific](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-16-end-of-topic-test-scientific.md)
- 7.3 Data Handling & Analysis
  - [7.3.1 Types of Data](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-3-1-types-of-data.md)
  - [7.3.2 Descriptive Statistics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-3-2-descriptive-statistics.md)
  - [7.3.3 Correlation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-3-3-correlation.md)
  - [7.3.4 Evaluation of Descriptive Statistics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-3-4-evaluation-of-descriptive-statistics.md)
  - [7.3.5 Presentation & Display of Data](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-3-5-presentation-and-display-of-data.md)
  - [7.3.6 Levels of Measurement (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-3-6-levels-of-measurement-a2-only.md)
  - [7.3.7 Coding in Content Analysis (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-3-7-coding-in-content-analysis-a2-only.md)
  - [7.3.8 Case Studies (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-3-8-case-studies-a2-only.md)
  - [7.3.9 End of Topic Test - Data Handling](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-3-9-end-of-topic-test-data-handling.md)
- 7.4 Inferential Testing
  - [7.4.1 Introduction to Inferential Testing](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-4-1-introduction-to-inferential-testing.md)
  - [7.4.2 Sign Test](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-4-2-sign-test.md)
  - [7.4.3 Piaget Conservation Experiment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-4-3-piaget-conservation-experiment.md)
  - [7.4.4 Non-Parametric Tests](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-4-4-non-parametric-tests.md)

### 8 Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
- 8.1 Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
  - [8.1.1 Culture Bias](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-1-culture-bias.md)
  - [8.1.2 Sub-Culture Bias](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-2-sub-culture-bias.md)
  - [8.1.3 Gender Bias](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-3-gender-bias.md)
  - [8.1.4 Ethnocentrism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-4-ethnocentrism.md)
  - [8.1.5 Cross Cultural Research](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-5-cross-cultural-research.md)
  - [8.1.6 Free Will & Determinism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-6-free-will-and-determinism.md)
  - [8.1.7 Comparison of Free Will & Determinism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-7-comparison-of-free-will-and-determinism.md)
  - [8.1.8 Reductionism & Holism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-8-reductionism-and-holism.md)
  - [8.1.9 Reductionist & Holistic Approaches](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-9-reductionist-and-holistic-approaches.md)
  - [8.1.10 Nature-Nurture Debate](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-10-nature-nurture-debate.md)
  - [8.1.11 Interactionist Approach](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-11-interactionist-approach.md)
  - [8.1.12 Nature-Nurture Methods](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-12-nature-nurture-methods.md)
  - [8.1.13 Nature-Nurture Approaches](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-13-nature-nurture-approaches.md)
  - [8.1.14 Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-14-idiographic-and-nomothetic-approaches.md)
  - [8.1.15 Socially Sensitive Research](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-15-socially-sensitive-research.md)
  - [8.1.16 End of Topic Test - Issues and Debates](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-16-end-of-topic-test-issues-and-debates.md)

### 9 Option 1: Relationships (A2 only)
- 9.1 Relationships: Sexual Relationships (A2 only)
  - [9.1.1 Factors Affecting Attraction: Self-Disclosure](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-1-1-factors-affecting-attraction-self-disclosure.md)
  - [9.1.2 Evaluation of Self-Disclosure Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-1-2-evaluation-of-self-disclosure-theory.md)
  - [9.1.3 Factors Affecting Attraction: Physical Attributes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-1-3-factors-affecting-attraction-physical-attributes.md)
  - [9.1.4 Matching Hypothesis Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-1-4-matching-hypothesis-studies.md)
  - [9.1.5 Factors Affecting Physical Attraction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-1-5-factors-affecting-physical-attraction.md)
  - [9.1.6 Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-1-6-factors-affecting-attraction-filter-theory-1.md)
  - [9.1.7 Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-1-7-factors-affecting-attraction-filter-theory-2.md)
  - [9.1.8 Evaluation of Filter Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-1-8-evaluation-of-filter-theory.md)
  - [9.1.9 End of Topic Test - Relationships](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-1-9-end-of-topic-test-relationships.md)
- 9.2 Relationships: Romantic Relationships (A2 only)
  - [9.2.1 Social Exchange Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-2-1-social-exchange-theory.md)
  - [9.2.2 Evaluation of Social Exchange Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-2-2-evaluation-of-social-exchange-theory.md)
  - [9.2.3 Equity Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-2-3-equity-theory.md)
  - [9.2.4 Evaluation of Equity Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-2-4-evaluation-of-equity-theory.md)
  - [9.2.5 Rusbult’s Investment Model](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-2-5-rusbults-investment-model.md)
  - [9.2.6 Evaluation of Rusbult's Investment Model](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-2-6-evaluation-of-rusbults-investment-model.md)
  - [9.2.7 Relationship Breakdown](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-2-7-relationship-breakdown.md)
  - [9.2.8 Studies on Relationship Breakdown](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-2-8-studies-on-relationship-breakdown.md)
  - [9.2.9 Evaluation of Relationship Breakdown](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-2-9-evaluation-of-relationship-breakdown.md)
  - [9.2.10 End of Topic Test - Romantic relationships](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-2-10-end-of-topic-test-romantic-relationships.md)
- 9.3 Relationships: Online (A2 only)
  - [9.3.1 Online Relationships](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-3-1-online-relationships.md)
  - [9.3.2 Evaluation of Reduced Cues & Hyperpersonal](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-3-2-evaluation-of-reduced-cues-and-hyperpersonal.md)
  - [9.3.3 Self Disclosure in Online Relationships](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-3-3-self-disclosure-in-online-relationships.md)
  - [9.3.4 Parasocial Relationships](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-3-4-parasocial-relationships.md)
  - [9.3.5 Attachment Theory & Parasocial Relationships](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-3-5-attachment-theory-and-parasocial-relationships.md)
  - [9.3.6 Evaluation of Parasocial Relationship Theories](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-3-6-evaluation-of-parasocial-relationship-theories.md)
  - [9.3.7 End of Topic Test - Online Relationships](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-3-7-end-of-topic-test-online-relationships.md)

### 10 Option 1: Gender (A2 only)
- 10.1 Gender (A2 only)
  - [10.1.1 Biological Sex](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/10-1-1-biological-sex.md)
  - [10.1.2 The Role of Hormones in Biological Sex](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/10-1-2-the-role-of-hormones-in-biological-sex.md)
  - [10.1.3 Biological Explanations of Gender Development](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/10-1-3-biological-explanations-of-gender-development.md)
  - [10.1.4 Gender Identities & BSRI](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/10-1-4-gender-identities-and-bsri.md)
  - [10.1.5 Kohlberg’s Theory of Gender Constancy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/10-1-5-kohlbergs-theory-of-gender-constancy.md)
  - [10.1.6 Evaluation of Kohlberg's Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/10-1-6-evaluation-of-kohlbergs-theory.md)
  - [10.1.7 Gender Schema Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/10-1-7-gender-schema-theory.md)
  - [10.1.8 Social Approach to Gender Development](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/10-1-8-social-approach-to-gender-development.md)
  - [10.1.9 Criticisms of Social Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/10-1-9-criticisms-of-social-theory.md)
  - [10.1.10 Media Influence on Gender Development](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/10-1-10-media-influence-on-gender-development.md)
  - [10.1.11 Gender Incongruence](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/10-1-11-gender-incongruence.md)
  - [10.1.12 End of Topic Test - Gender](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/10-1-12-end-of-topic-test-gender.md)

### 11 Option 1: Cognition & Development (A2 only)
- 11.1 Cognition & Development (A2 only)
  - [11.1.1 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-1-piagets-theory-of-cognitive-development-1.md)
  - [11.1.2 Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-2-piagets-theory-of-cognitive-development-2.md)
  - [11.1.3 Schema Accommodation Assimilation & Equilibration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-3-schema-accommodation-assimilation-and-equilibration.md)
  - [11.1.4 Piaget & Inhelder’s Three Mountains Task (1956)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-4-piaget-and-inhelders-three-mountains-task-1956.md)
  - [11.1.5 Conservation & Class Inclusion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-5-conservation-and-class-inclusion.md)
  - [11.1.6 Evaluation of Piaget](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-6-evaluation-of-piaget.md)
  - [11.1.7 Vygotsky](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-7-vygotsky.md)
  - [11.1.8 Evaluation of Vygotsky](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-8-evaluation-of-vygotsky.md)
  - [11.1.9 Baillargeon](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-9-baillargeon.md)
  - [11.1.10 Baillargeon's studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-10-baillargeons-studies.md)
  - [11.1.11 Evaluation of Baillargeon](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-11-evaluation-of-baillargeon.md)
  - [11.1.12 Sense of Self & Theory of Mind](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-12-sense-of-self-and-theory-of-mind.md)
  - [11.1.13 Baron-Cohen Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-13-baron-cohen-studies.md)
  - [11.1.14 Selman’s Five Levels of Perspective Taking](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-14-selmans-five-levels-of-perspective-taking.md)
  - [11.1.15 Biological Basis of Social Cognition](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-15-biological-basis-of-social-cognition.md)
  - [11.1.16 Evaluation of Biological Basis of Social Cognition](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-16-evaluation-of-biological-basis-of-social-cognition.md)
  - [11.1.17 Issues in Social Neuroscience](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-17-issues-in-social-neuroscience.md)
  - [11.1.18 Top Grade AO2/AO3  - Cognition & Development](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-18-top-grade-ao2ao3-cognition-and-development.md)
  - [11.1.19 End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-19-end-of-topic-test-cognition-and-development-1.md)
  - [11.1.20 End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-20-end-of-topic-test-cognition-and-development-2.md)
  - [11.1.21 End of Topic Test - Cognition 3](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-21-end-of-topic-test-cognition-3.md)

### 12 Option 2: Schizophrenia (A2 only)
- 12.1 Schizophrenia: Diagnosis (A2 only)
  - [12.1.1 Symptoms of Schizophrenia](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-1-1-symptoms-of-schizophrenia.md)
  - [12.1.2 Issues in Diagnosis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-1-2-issues-in-diagnosis.md)
  - [12.1.3 Pinto (2017) & Copeland (1971)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-1-3-pinto-2017-and-copeland-1971.md)
  - [12.1.4 End of Topic Test - Schizophrenia](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-1-4-end-of-topic-test-schizophrenia.md)
- 12.2 Schizophrenia: Treatment (A2 only)
  - [12.2.1 Family-Based Psychological Explanations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-1-family-based-psychological-explanations.md)
  - [12.2.2 Evaluation of Family-Based Explanations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-2-evaluation-of-family-based-explanations.md)
  - [12.2.3 Cognitive Explanations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-3-cognitive-explanations.md)
  - [12.2.4 Drug Therapies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-4-drug-therapies.md)
  - [12.2.5 Evaluation of Drug Therapies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-5-evaluation-of-drug-therapies.md)
  - [12.2.6 Biological Explanations for Schizophrenia](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-6-biological-explanations-for-schizophrenia.md)
  - [12.2.7 Dopamine Hypothesis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-7-dopamine-hypothesis.md)
  - [12.2.8 Psychological Therapies 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-8-psychological-therapies-1.md)
  - [12.2.9 Psychological Therapies 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-9-psychological-therapies-2.md)
  - [12.2.10 Interactionist Approach - Diathesis-Stress Model](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-10-interactionist-approach-diathesis-stress-model.md)
  - [12.2.11 Interactionist Approach - Triggers & Treatment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-11-interactionist-approach-triggers-and-treatment.md)
  - [12.2.12 Evaluation of the Interactionist Approach](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-12-evaluation-of-the-interactionist-approach.md)
  - [12.2.13 Evaluation of Psychological Therapies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-13-evaluation-of-psychological-therapies.md)
  - [12.2.14 Diagnostic Misconceptions - CBT & CBTp](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-14-diagnostic-misconceptions-cbt-and-cbtp.md)
  - [12.2.15 End of Topic Test - Treatments 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-15-end-of-topic-test-treatments-1.md)
  - [12.2.16 End of Topic Test - Treatments 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-16-end-of-topic-test-treatments-2.md)

### 13 Option 2: Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
- 13.1 Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
  - [13.1.1 Explanations for Food Preferences](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/13-1-1-explanations-for-food-preferences.md)
  - [13.1.2 Birch et al (1987) & Lowe et al (2004)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/13-1-2-birch-et-al-1987-and-lowe-et-al-2004.md)
  - [13.1.3 Control of Eating Behaviours](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/13-1-3-control-of-eating-behaviours.md)
  - [13.1.4 Control of Eating Behaviour: Leptin](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/13-1-4-control-of-eating-behaviour-leptin.md)
  - [13.1.5 Biological Explanations for Anorexia Nervosa](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/13-1-5-biological-explanations-for-anorexia-nervosa.md)
  - [13.1.6 Psychological Explanations: Family Systems Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/13-1-6-psychological-explanations-family-systems-theory.md)
  - [13.1.7 Psychological Explanations: Social Learning Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/13-1-7-psychological-explanations-social-learning-theory.md)
  - [13.1.8 Psychological Explanations: Cognitive Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/13-1-8-psychological-explanations-cognitive-theory.md)
  - [13.1.9 Biological Explanations for Obesity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/13-1-9-biological-explanations-for-obesity.md)
  - [13.1.10 Biological Explanations: Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/13-1-10-biological-explanations-studies.md)
  - [13.1.11 Psychological Explanations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/13-1-11-psychological-explanations.md)
  - [13.1.12 Psychological Explanations: Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/13-1-12-psychological-explanations-studies.md)
  - [13.1.13 End of Topic Test - Eating Behaviour](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/13-1-13-end-of-topic-test-eating-behaviour.md)

### 14 Option 2: Stress (A2 only)
- 14.1 Stress (A2 only)
  - [14.1.1 Physiology of Stress](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-1-physiology-of-stress.md)
  - [14.1.2 Role of Stress in Illness](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-2-role-of-stress-in-illness.md)
  - [14.1.3 Role of Stress in Illness: Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-3-role-of-stress-in-illness-studies.md)
  - [14.1.4 Social Readjustment Rating Scales](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-4-social-readjustment-rating-scales.md)
  - [14.1.5 Hassles & Uplifts Scales](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-5-hassles-and-uplifts-scales.md)
  - [14.1.6 Stress, Workload & Control](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-6-stress-workload-and-control.md)
  - [14.1.7 Stress Level Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-7-stress-level-studies.md)
  - [14.1.8 Physiological Measures of Stress](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-8-physiological-measures-of-stress.md)
  - [14.1.9 Individual Differences](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-9-individual-differences.md)
  - [14.1.10 Stress & Gender](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-10-stress-and-gender.md)
  - [14.1.11 Drug Therapy & Biofeedback for Stress](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-11-drug-therapy-and-biofeedback-for-stress.md)
  - [14.1.12 Stress Inoculation Therapy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-12-stress-inoculation-therapy.md)
  - [14.1.13 Social Support & Stress](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-13-social-support-and-stress.md)
  - [14.1.14 End of Topic Test - Stress 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-14-end-of-topic-test-stress-1.md)
  - [14.1.15 End of Topic Test - Stress 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-15-end-of-topic-test-stress-2.md)

### 15 Option 3: Aggression (A2 only)
- 15.1 Aggression: Physiological (A2 only)
  - [15.1.1 Neural Mechanisms](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-1-1-neural-mechanisms.md)
  - [15.1.2 Serotonin](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-1-2-serotonin.md)
  - [15.1.3 Hormonal Mechanisms](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-1-3-hormonal-mechanisms.md)
  - [15.1.4 Genetic Factors](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-1-4-genetic-factors.md)
  - [15.1.5 Genetic Factors 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-1-5-genetic-factors-2.md)
  - [15.1.6 Ethological Explanation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-1-6-ethological-explanation.md)
  - [15.1.7 Innate Releasing Mechanisms & Fixed Action Pattern](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-1-7-innate-releasing-mechanisms-and-fixed-action-pattern.md)
  - [15.1.8 Evolutionary Explanations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-1-8-evolutionary-explanations.md)
  - [15.1.9 Buss et al (1992) - Sex Differences in Jealousy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-1-9-buss-et-al-1992-sex-differences-in-jealousy.md)
  - [15.1.10 Evaluation of Evolutionary Explanations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-1-10-evaluation-of-evolutionary-explanations.md)
  - [15.1.11 End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-1-11-end-of-topic-test-aggression-physiological-1.md)
  - [15.1.12 End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-1-12-end-of-topic-test-aggression-physiological-2.md)
- 15.2 Aggression: Social Psychological (A2 only)
  - [15.2.1 Social Psychological Explanation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-1-social-psychological-explanation.md)
  - [15.2.2 Buss (1963) - Frustration/Aggression](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-2-buss-1963-frustrationaggression.md)
  - [15.2.3 Social Psychological Explanation 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-3-social-psychological-explanation-2.md)
  - [15.2.4 Social Learning Theory (SLT) 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-4-social-learning-theory-slt-1.md)
  - [15.2.5 Social Learning Theory (SLT) 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-5-social-learning-theory-slt-2.md)
  - [15.2.6 Limitations of Social Learning Theory (SLT)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-6-limitations-of-social-learning-theory-slt.md)
  - [15.2.7 Deindividuation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-7-deindividuation.md)
  - [15.2.8 Deindividuation 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-8-deindividuation-2.md)
  - [15.2.9 Deindividuation - Diener et al (1976)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-9-deindividuation-diener-et-al-1976.md)
  - [15.2.10 End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-10-end-of-topic-test-aggression-social-psychology.md)
  - [15.2.11 Institutional Aggression: Prisons](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-11-institutional-aggression-prisons.md)
  - [15.2.12 Evaluation of Dispositional & Situational](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-12-evaluation-of-dispositional-and-situational.md)
  - [15.2.13 Influence of Computer Games](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-13-influence-of-computer-games.md)
  - [15.2.14 Influence of Television](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-14-influence-of-television.md)
  - [15.2.15 Evaluation of Studies on Media](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-15-evaluation-of-studies-on-media.md)
  - [15.2.16 Desensitisation & Disinhibition](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-16-desensitisation-and-disinhibition.md)
  - [15.2.17 Cognitive Priming](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-17-cognitive-priming.md)
  - [15.2.18 End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-18-end-of-topic-test-aggression-social-psychology.md)

### 16 Option 3: Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
- 16.1 Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
  - [16.1.1 Defining Crime](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-1-defining-crime.md)
  - [16.1.2 Measuring Crime](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-2-measuring-crime.md)
  - [16.1.3 Offender Profiling](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-3-offender-profiling.md)
  - [16.1.4 Evaluation of Offender Profiling](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-4-evaluation-of-offender-profiling.md)
  - [16.1.5 John Duffy Case Study](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-5-john-duffy-case-study.md)
  - [16.1.6 Biological Explanations 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-6-biological-explanations-1.md)
  - [16.1.7 Biological Explanations 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-7-biological-explanations-2.md)
  - [16.1.8 Evaluation- Biological Explanations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-8-evaluation-biological-explanations.md)
  - [16.1.9 Cognitive Explanations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-9-cognitive-explanations.md)
  - [16.1.10 Moral Reasoning](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-10-moral-reasoning.md)
  - [16.1.11 Differential Association Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-11-differential-association-theory.md)
  - [16.1.12 Custodial Sentencing](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-12-custodial-sentencing.md)
  - [16.1.13 Effects of Prison](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-13-effects-of-prison.md)
  - [16.1.14 Evaluation of the Effects of Prison](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-14-evaluation-of-the-effects-of-prison.md)
  - [16.1.15 Behavioural Treatments & Therapies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-15-behavioural-treatments-and-therapies.md)
  - [16.1.16 Effectiveness of Behavioural Treatments](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-16-effectiveness-of-behavioural-treatments.md)
  - [16.1.17 Restorative Justice](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-17-restorative-justice.md)
  - [16.1.18 End of Topic Test - Forensic 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-18-end-of-topic-test-forensic-1.md)
  - [16.1.19 End of Topic Test - Forensic 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-19-end-of-topic-test-forensic-2.md)

### 17 Option 3: Addiction (A2 only)
- 17.1 Addiction (A2 only)
  - [17.1.1 Definition](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-1-definition.md)
  - [17.1.2 Brain Neurochemistry Explanation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-2-brain-neurochemistry-explanation.md)
  - [17.1.3 Learning Theory Explanation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-3-learning-theory-explanation.md)
  - [17.1.4 Evaluation of a Learning Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-4-evaluation-of-a-learning-theory.md)
  - [17.1.5 Cognitive Bias](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-5-cognitive-bias.md)
  - [17.1.6 Griffiths on Cognitive Bias](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-6-griffiths-on-cognitive-bias.md)
  - [17.1.7 Evaluation of Cognitive Theory (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-7-evaluation-of-cognitive-theory-a2-only.md)
  - [17.1.8 Gambling Addiction & Learning Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-8-gambling-addiction-and-learning-theory.md)
  - [17.1.9 Social Influences on Addiction 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-9-social-influences-on-addiction-1.md)
  - [17.1.10 Social Influences on Addiction 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-10-social-influences-on-addiction-2.md)
  - [17.1.11 Personal Influences  on Addiction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-11-personal-influences-on-addiction.md)
  - [17.1.12 Genetic Explanations of Addiction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-12-genetic-explanations-of-addiction.md)
  - [17.1.13 End of Topic Test - Addiction 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-13-end-of-topic-test-addiction-1.md)
  - [17.1.14 End of Topic Test - Addiction 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-14-end-of-topic-test-addiction-2.md)
- 17.2 Treating Addiction (A2 only)
  - [17.2.1 Drug Therapy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-2-1-drug-therapy.md)
  - [17.2.2 Behavioural Interventions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-2-2-behavioural-interventions.md)
  - [17.2.3 Cognitive Behavioural Therapy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-2-3-cognitive-behavioural-therapy.md)
  - [17.2.4 Six Stage Model of Behaviour Change](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-2-4-six-stage-model-of-behaviour-change.md)
  - [17.2.5 End of Topic Test - Treating](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-2-5-end-of-topic-test-treating.md)