Source: https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-3-asch-1951

[Revision notes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes.md) › [A Level](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level.md) › [Psychology](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology.md) › [AQA](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa.md) › Asch (1951)

# Asch (1951)

Psychology: AQA A Level, topic 1.1.3

## Asch (1951) and the Asch Effect

__Asch (1951)__ conducted an experiment looking at normative social influence. He wanted to see if people would conform to a group's wrong answer even if the answer was unambiguous. The Asch effect is the influence of the group's majority view on an individual’s judgment.

### Line judgment task

![Line judgment task](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-05/3fb785f8-aeb8-4c45-9959-7c31a5c6fa38/Screen%20Shot%202018-05-28%20at%2015.37.48.png)

### Line judgment task

![Line judgment task](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-05/3fb785f8-aeb8-4c45-9959-7c31a5c6fa38/Screen%20Shot%202018-05-28%20at%2015.37.48.png)

- A group of participants were shown a series of printed line segments of different lengths: a, b, and c, and then a fourth line segment: x.
- They were asked to identify which line segment from the first group most closely resembled the length of line segment x.

### Confederates

![Confederates](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/b5590135-35da-40ef-943e-dfdaa619cf45/angry-man-computer.jpg)

- Each group of participants had only one true, naïve subject. The remaining members of the group were confederates of the researcher.
- A confederate is a person who is aware of the experiment and works for the researcher. They are used to manipulate social situations as part of the research design.
- True, naive participants believe that the confederates are uninformed participants like them.
- In Asch's study, the confederates identified a line segment that was obviously shorter than the target line - a wrong answer.

### Participant's choice

![Participant's choice](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/7bcd09c1-9d94-4ca6-9a75-e069eb92cafe/peer-pressure.jpg)

- After hearing the confederates choose an incorrect line segment, the naïve participant then had to identify aloud the line segment that best matched the target line segment.
- Asch found that 75% of participants conformed to group pressure at least once by choosing the incorrect line because of the group's views.

### Factors that influence conformity

![Factors that influence conformity](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/34f22cce-5451-4ec0-a6ee-46772f19deca/whisper-secret.jpg)

- Asch found four key factors that influence conformity:
 - The size of the majority: the greater the number of people in the majority, the more likely an individual will conform, but there is an upper limit where adding more members does not increase conformity (up to seven in Asch's experiment).
 - The presence of another dissenter/non-conformist: if there is at least one dissenter, conformity rates drop to near zero.

### Factors that influence conformity cont.

![Factors that influence conformity cont.](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/c93b84e7-95d9-40bc-acf6-a44979b8c28f/man-thinking-memory-thought.jpg)

- Asch found four key factors that influence conformity:
 - The public or private nature of the responses: when responses are made publicly (in front of others), conformity is more likely; however, when responses are made privately, conformity is less likely.
 - Task difficulty: the harder the lines were to distinguish in length, the more conformity increased.

## Analysing Asch's (1951) Experiment on Conformity

__Asch's (1951)__ experiment looked at whether people would go along with an incorrect answer, even if the correct answer was obvious. There were pros and cons to the methodology used in Asch's study.

### Pros

![Pros](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/08815bd0-160e-40f0-8a86-caa0de951edc/white-lab-office-room.jpg)

- The laboratory setting meant variables were strictly controlled. This meant:
 - The experiment could be repeated easily.
 - The influence of extraneous variables (those not being studied) could be minimised.

### Cons

![Cons](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/14c02c6f-1dae-49f9-a6ac-f05305e1aea5/psychology-psychologist-therapy-doctor.jpg)

- Artificial situation - this means the experiment has low ecological validity (and cannot be generalised well to real-life situations).
- Deception - real participants did not know the other participants were confederates.

## Factors Affecting Conformity - Asch (1951)

Asch identified that confidence may affect conformity. Other studies suggest that gender affects conformity.

### Confidence in Asch's study

![Confidence in Asch's study](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/cc48bfe2-80ef-464b-b778-b090b0ea2fee/confident-red-head-ginger-success.jpg)

- Asch found that participants who had not conformed all displayed confidence. 
- Participants who felt confident in their decisions did not succumb to group pressure as easily.

### Confidence in other studies

![Confidence in other studies](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/2d63ad3a-655b-4523-b9c0-c4032c10ab26/engineers-building.jpg)

- __Perrin and Spencer (1980)__ carried out Asch's experiment on engineering students. Conformity rates were not as high as in Asch's experiment. This might be because the engineers were confident in their decision-making.
- __Wiesenthal et al. (1976)__ observed that participants who were confident in their ability to complete a task were not as likely to conform.

### Gender - __Eagly and Carli (1981)__

![Gender - __Eagly and Carli (1981)__](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/362aa99b-4036-47f7-88e1-bc0fb47b0002/group-work-project.jpg)

- Before the 1970s, many psychologists felt that women conformed more than men. 
- But when __Eagly and Carli (1981)__ analysed conformity research data, they found inconsistencies in sex differences. They found that males and females differed most in studies where audiences created group pressure.

### Gender - __Eagly (1987)__

![Gender - __Eagly (1987)__](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/68d2c600-5bd6-4860-98aa-237865fd50dc/group-men-argument.jpg)

- __Eagly (1987)__ believed that men and women show different levels of conformity because of their different social roles. 
 - Women are more likely to conform because they don't like group conflict.
 - Men are less likely to conform because they are expected to show independence and assertiveness.

## Test yourself on Asch (1951)

- What are four factors that influence conformity?
- What is the name given to a person who works for the researcher and is aware of the experiment but acts as a participant in order to manipulate a social situation as part of the research design?
- How do factors influence conformity?
- What percentage of participants conformed (at least once) to the incorrect majority in __Asch's (1951)__ line judgement task?
- Which of these is NOT a downside of the methods Asch (1951) used in his experiment on conformity?

[Practise this topic for free](https://app.senecalearning.com/classroom/course/db5cd155-3f4b-40cb-a9f9-8c314f118345/section/17014574-fbd0-47f6-8701-6ac975908866/session)

- Previous topic: [1.1.2 Jenness' Conformity Study](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-2-jenness-conformity-study.md)
- Next topic: [1.1.4 Sherif (1935)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-4-sherif-1935.md)

## Psychology: AQA A Level contents

### 1 Social Influence
- 1.1 Social Influence
  - [1.1.1 Conformity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-1-conformity.md)
  - [1.1.2 Jenness' Conformity Study](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-2-jenness-conformity-study.md)
  - [1.1.3 Asch (1951)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-3-asch-1951.md)
  - [1.1.4 Sherif (1935)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-4-sherif-1935.md)
  - [1.1.5 Conformity to Social Roles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-5-conformity-to-social-roles.md)
  - [1.1.6 End of Topic Test - Conformity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-6-end-of-topic-test-conformity.md)
  - [1.1.7 Obedience](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-7-obedience.md)
  - [1.1.8 Analysing Milgram's Experiment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-8-analysing-milgrams-experiment.md)
  - [1.1.9 Agentic State & Legitimate Authority](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-9-agentic-state-and-legitimate-authority.md)
  - [1.1.10 Variables of Obedience](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-10-variables-of-obedience.md)
  - [1.1.11 Resistance to Social Influence](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-11-resistance-to-social-influence.md)
  - [1.1.12 Minority Influence & Social Change](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-12-minority-influence-and-social-change.md)
  - [1.1.13 Minority Influence & Social Impact Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-13-minority-influence-and-social-impact-theory.md)
  - [1.1.14 End of Topic Test - Social Influences](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-14-end-of-topic-test-social-influences.md)
  - [1.1.15 Exam-Style Question - Conformity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-15-exam-style-question-conformity.md)
  - [1.1.16 Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Social Influence](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/1-1-16-top-grade-ao2ao3-social-influence.md)

### 2 Memory
- 2.1 Memory
  - [2.1.1 Multi-Store Model of Memory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-1-multi-store-model-of-memory.md)
  - [2.1.2 Short-Term vs Long-Term Memory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-2-short-term-vs-long-term-memory.md)
  - [2.1.3 Support for the Multi-Store Model of Memory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-3-support-for-the-multi-store-model-of-memory.md)
  - [2.1.4 Duration Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-4-duration-studies.md)
  - [2.1.5 Capacity Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-5-capacity-studies.md)
  - [2.1.6 Coding Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-6-coding-studies.md)
  - [2.1.7 The Working Memory Model](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-7-the-working-memory-model.md)
  - [2.1.8 The Working Memory Model 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-8-the-working-memory-model-2.md)
  - [2.1.9 Support for the Working Memory Model](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-9-support-for-the-working-memory-model.md)
  - [2.1.10 Explanations for Forgetting](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-10-explanations-for-forgetting.md)
  - [2.1.11 Studies on Interference](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-11-studies-on-interference.md)
  - [2.1.12 Cue-Dependent Forgetting](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-12-cue-dependent-forgetting.md)
  - [2.1.13 Eyewitness Testimony - Loftus & Palmer](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-13-eyewitness-testimony-loftus-and-palmer.md)
  - [2.1.14 Eyewitness Testimony - Loftus](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-14-eyewitness-testimony-loftus.md)
  - [2.1.15 Eyewitness Testimony - Post-Event Discussion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-15-eyewitness-testimony-post-event-discussion.md)
  - [2.1.16 Eyewitness Testimony - Age & Anxiety](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-16-eyewitness-testimony-age-and-anxiety.md)
  - [2.1.17 Cognitive Interview](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-17-cognitive-interview.md)
  - [2.1.18 Cognitive Interview - Geiselman & Fisher](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-18-cognitive-interview-geiselman-and-fisher.md)
  - [2.1.19 End of Topic Test - Memory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-19-end-of-topic-test-memory.md)
  - [2.1.20 Exam-Style Question - Memory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/2-1-20-exam-style-question-memory.md)

### 3 Attachment
- 3.1 Attachment
  - [3.1.1 The Concept of Attachment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-1-the-concept-of-attachment.md)
  - [3.1.2 Animal Studies of Attachment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-2-animal-studies-of-attachment.md)
  - [3.1.3 Explanations of Attachment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-3-explanations-of-attachment.md)
  - [3.1.4 Attachment Types - Strange Situation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-4-attachment-types-strange-situation.md)
  - [3.1.5 Cultural Differences in Attachment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-5-cultural-differences-in-attachment.md)
  - [3.1.6 Disruption of Attachment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-6-disruption-of-attachment.md)
  - [3.1.7 Disruption of Attachment - Privation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-7-disruption-of-attachment-privation.md)
  - [3.1.8 Overcoming the Effects of Disruption](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-8-overcoming-the-effects-of-disruption.md)
  - [3.1.9 The Effects of Institutionalisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-9-the-effects-of-institutionalisation.md)
  - [3.1.10 Early Attachment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-10-early-attachment.md)
  - [3.1.11 Critical Period of Attachment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-11-critical-period-of-attachment.md)
  - [3.1.12 End of Topic Test - Attachment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-12-end-of-topic-test-attachment.md)
  - [3.1.13 Exam-Style Question - Attachment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-13-exam-style-question-attachment.md)
  - [3.1.14 Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Attachment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/3-1-14-top-grade-ao2ao3-attachment.md)

### 4 Clinical Psychology & Mental Health
- 4.1 Clinical Psychology & Mental Health
  - [4.1.1 Deviation from Social Norms](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-1-deviation-from-social-norms.md)
  - [4.1.2 Deviation from Social Norms 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-2-deviation-from-social-norms-2.md)
  - [4.1.3 Phobias, Depression & OCD](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-3-phobias-depression-and-ocd.md)
  - [4.1.4 Phobias: Behavioural Approach](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-4-phobias-behavioural-approach.md)
  - [4.1.5 Evaluation of Behavioural Explanations of Phobias](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-5-evaluation-of-behavioural-explanations-of-phobias.md)
  - [4.1.6 Depression: Cognitive Approach](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-6-depression-cognitive-approach.md)
  - [4.1.7 OCD: Biological Approach](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-7-ocd-biological-approach.md)
  - [4.1.8 Evidence for the Biological Approach](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-8-evidence-for-the-biological-approach.md)
  - [4.1.9 End of Topic Test - Psychopathy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-9-end-of-topic-test-psychopathy.md)
  - [4.1.10 Exam-Style Question - Phobias](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-10-exam-style-question-phobias.md)
  - [4.1.11 Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Psychopathology](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-11-top-grade-ao2ao3-psychopathology.md)
  - [4.1.12 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Phobia vs Fear](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-12-diagnostic-misconceptions-phobia-vs-fear.md)
  - [4.1.13 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Depression & Self-Harm](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-13-diagnostic-misconceptions-depression-and-self-harm.md)
  - [4.1.14 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Desensitisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/4-1-14-diagnostic-misconceptions-desensitisation.md)

### 5 Approaches in Psychology
- 5.1 Approaches in Psychology
  - [5.1.1 The Behaviourist Approach - Classical Conditioning](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-1-the-behaviourist-approach-classical-conditioning.md)
  - [5.1.2 Pavlov's Experiment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-2-pavlovs-experiment.md)
  - [5.1.3 Little Albert Study](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-3-little-albert-study.md)
  - [5.1.4 The Behaviourist Approach - Operant Conditioning](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-4-the-behaviourist-approach-operant-conditioning.md)
  - [5.1.5 Social Learning Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-5-social-learning-theory.md)
  - [5.1.6 The Cognitive Approach 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-6-the-cognitive-approach-1.md)
  - [5.1.7 The Cognitive Approach 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-7-the-cognitive-approach-2.md)
  - [5.1.8 The Biological Approach](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-8-the-biological-approach.md)
  - [5.1.9 The Biological Approach 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-9-the-biological-approach-2.md)
  - [5.1.10 Gottesman (1991) - Twin Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-10-gottesman-1991-twin-studies.md)
  - [5.1.11 Brain Scanning](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-11-brain-scanning.md)
  - [5.1.12 Structure of Personality & Little Hans](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-12-structure-of-personality-and-little-hans.md)
  - [5.1.13 The Psychodynamic Approach (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-13-the-psychodynamic-approach-a2-only.md)
  - [5.1.14 Humanistic Psychology (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-14-humanistic-psychology-a2-only.md)
  - [5.1.15 Aronoff (1957) (A2 Only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-15-aronoff-1957-a2-only.md)
  - [5.1.16 End of Topic Test - Approaches](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-1-16-end-of-topic-test-approaches.md)
- 5.2 Comparison of Approaches (A2 only)
  - [5.2.1 Psychodynamic Approach](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-2-1-psychodynamic-approach.md)
  - [5.2.2 Cognitive Approach](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-2-2-cognitive-approach.md)
  - [5.2.3 Biological Approach](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-2-3-biological-approach.md)
  - [5.2.4 Behavioural Approach](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-2-4-behavioural-approach.md)
  - [5.2.5 End of Topic Test - Comparison of Approaches](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/5-2-5-end-of-topic-test-comparison-of-approaches.md)

### 6 Biopsychology
- 6.1 Biopsychology
  - [6.1.1 Nervous System Divisions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/6-1-1-nervous-system-divisions.md)
  - [6.1.2 Neuron Structure & Function](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/6-1-2-neuron-structure-and-function.md)
  - [6.1.3 Neurotransmitters](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/6-1-3-neurotransmitters.md)
  - [6.1.4 Endocrine System Function](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/6-1-4-endocrine-system-function.md)
  - [6.1.5 Fight or Flight Response](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/6-1-5-fight-or-flight-response.md)
  - [6.1.6 The Brain (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/6-1-6-the-brain-a2-only.md)
  - [6.1.7 Localisation of Brain Function (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/6-1-7-localisation-of-brain-function-a2-only.md)
  - [6.1.8 Studying the Brain (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/6-1-8-studying-the-brain-a2-only.md)
  - [6.1.9 CIMT (A2 Only) & Postmortem](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/6-1-9-cimt-a2-only-and-postmortem.md)
  - [6.1.10 Top Grade AO2/AO3 - Biopsychology](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/6-1-10-top-grade-ao2ao3-biopsychology.md)
  - [6.1.11 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Plasticity & Recovery](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/6-1-11-diagnostic-misconceptions-plasticity-and-recovery.md)
  - [6.1.12 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Endogenous Pacemakers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/6-1-12-diagnostic-misconceptions-endogenous-pacemakers.md)
  - [6.1.13 End of Topic Test - Biopsychology](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/6-1-13-end-of-topic-test-biopsychology.md)

### 7 Research Methods
- 7.1 Research Methods
  - [7.1.1 Experimental Method](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-1-1-experimental-method.md)
  - [7.1.2 Observational Techniques](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-1-2-observational-techniques.md)
  - [7.1.3 Covert, Overt & Controlled Observation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-1-3-covert-overt-and-controlled-observation.md)
  - [7.1.4 Self-Report Techniques](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-1-4-self-report-techniques.md)
  - [7.1.5 Correlations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-1-5-correlations.md)
  - [7.1.6 Exam-Style Question - Research Methods](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-1-6-exam-style-question-research-methods.md)
  - [7.1.7 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Sign Test](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-1-7-diagnostic-misconceptions-sign-test.md)
  - [7.1.8 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Content & Thematic](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-1-8-diagnostic-misconceptions-content-and-thematic.md)
  - [7.1.9 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Valid vs Reliable](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-1-9-diagnostic-misconceptions-valid-vs-reliable.md)
  - [7.1.10 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Confounding Variable](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-1-10-diagnostic-misconceptions-confounding-variable.md)
  - [7.1.11 End of Topic Test - Research Methods](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-1-11-end-of-topic-test-research-methods.md)
- 7.2 Scientific Processes
  - [7.2.1 Aims, Hypotheses & Sampling](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-1-aims-hypotheses-and-sampling.md)
  - [7.2.2 Pilot Studies & Design](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-2-pilot-studies-and-design.md)
  - [7.2.3 Questionnaires](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-3-questionnaires.md)
  - [7.2.4 Variables & Control](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-4-variables-and-control.md)
  - [7.2.5 Demand Characteristics & Investigator Effects](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-5-demand-characteristics-and-investigator-effects.md)
  - [7.2.6 Ethics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-6-ethics.md)
  - [7.2.7 Limitations of Ethical Guidelines](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-7-limitations-of-ethical-guidelines.md)
  - [7.2.8 Consent & Protection from Harm Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-8-consent-and-protection-from-harm-studies.md)
  - [7.2.9 Peer Review & The Economy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-9-peer-review-and-the-economy.md)
  - [7.2.10 Validity (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-10-validity-a2-only.md)
  - [7.2.11 Reliability (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-11-reliability-a2-only.md)
  - [7.2.12 Features of Science (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-12-features-of-science-a2-only.md)
  - [7.2.13 Paradigms & Falsifiability (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-13-paradigms-and-falsifiability-a2-only.md)
  - [7.2.14 Scientific Report (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-14-scientific-report-a2-only.md)
  - [7.2.15 Scientific Report 2 (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-15-scientific-report-2-a2-only.md)
  - [7.2.16 End of Topic Test - Scientific](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-2-16-end-of-topic-test-scientific.md)
- 7.3 Data Handling & Analysis
  - [7.3.1 Types of Data](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-3-1-types-of-data.md)
  - [7.3.2 Descriptive Statistics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-3-2-descriptive-statistics.md)
  - [7.3.3 Correlation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-3-3-correlation.md)
  - [7.3.4 Evaluation of Descriptive Statistics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-3-4-evaluation-of-descriptive-statistics.md)
  - [7.3.5 Presentation & Display of Data](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-3-5-presentation-and-display-of-data.md)
  - [7.3.6 Levels of Measurement (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-3-6-levels-of-measurement-a2-only.md)
  - [7.3.7 Coding in Content Analysis (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-3-7-coding-in-content-analysis-a2-only.md)
  - [7.3.8 Case Studies (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-3-8-case-studies-a2-only.md)
  - [7.3.9 End of Topic Test - Data Handling](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-3-9-end-of-topic-test-data-handling.md)
- 7.4 Inferential Testing
  - [7.4.1 Introduction to Inferential Testing](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-4-1-introduction-to-inferential-testing.md)
  - [7.4.2 Sign Test](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-4-2-sign-test.md)
  - [7.4.3 Piaget Conservation Experiment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-4-3-piaget-conservation-experiment.md)
  - [7.4.4 Non-Parametric Tests](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/7-4-4-non-parametric-tests.md)

### 8 Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
- 8.1 Issues & Debates in Psychology (A2 only)
  - [8.1.1 Culture Bias](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-1-culture-bias.md)
  - [8.1.2 Sub-Culture Bias](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-2-sub-culture-bias.md)
  - [8.1.3 Gender Bias](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-3-gender-bias.md)
  - [8.1.4 Ethnocentrism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-4-ethnocentrism.md)
  - [8.1.5 Cross Cultural Research](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-5-cross-cultural-research.md)
  - [8.1.6 Free Will & Determinism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-6-free-will-and-determinism.md)
  - [8.1.7 Comparison of Free Will & Determinism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-7-comparison-of-free-will-and-determinism.md)
  - [8.1.8 Reductionism & Holism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-8-reductionism-and-holism.md)
  - [8.1.9 Reductionist & Holistic Approaches](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-9-reductionist-and-holistic-approaches.md)
  - [8.1.10 Nature-Nurture Debate](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-10-nature-nurture-debate.md)
  - [8.1.11 Interactionist Approach](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-11-interactionist-approach.md)
  - [8.1.12 Nature-Nurture Methods](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-12-nature-nurture-methods.md)
  - [8.1.13 Nature-Nurture Approaches](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-13-nature-nurture-approaches.md)
  - [8.1.14 Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-14-idiographic-and-nomothetic-approaches.md)
  - [8.1.15 Socially Sensitive Research](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-15-socially-sensitive-research.md)
  - [8.1.16 End of Topic Test - Issues and Debates](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/8-1-16-end-of-topic-test-issues-and-debates.md)

### 9 Option 1: Relationships (A2 only)
- 9.1 Relationships: Sexual Relationships (A2 only)
  - [9.1.1 Factors Affecting Attraction: Self-Disclosure](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-1-1-factors-affecting-attraction-self-disclosure.md)
  - [9.1.2 Evaluation of Self-Disclosure Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-1-2-evaluation-of-self-disclosure-theory.md)
  - [9.1.3 Factors Affecting Attraction: Physical Attributes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-1-3-factors-affecting-attraction-physical-attributes.md)
  - [9.1.4 Matching Hypothesis Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-1-4-matching-hypothesis-studies.md)
  - [9.1.5 Factors Affecting Physical Attraction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-1-5-factors-affecting-physical-attraction.md)
  - [9.1.6 Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-1-6-factors-affecting-attraction-filter-theory-1.md)
  - [9.1.7 Factors Affecting Attraction: Filter Theory 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-1-7-factors-affecting-attraction-filter-theory-2.md)
  - [9.1.8 Evaluation of Filter Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-1-8-evaluation-of-filter-theory.md)
  - [9.1.9 End of Topic Test - Relationships](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-1-9-end-of-topic-test-relationships.md)
- 9.2 Relationships: Romantic Relationships (A2 only)
  - [9.2.1 Social Exchange Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-2-1-social-exchange-theory.md)
  - [9.2.2 Evaluation of Social Exchange Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-2-2-evaluation-of-social-exchange-theory.md)
  - [9.2.3 Equity Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-2-3-equity-theory.md)
  - [9.2.4 Evaluation of Equity Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-2-4-evaluation-of-equity-theory.md)
  - [9.2.5 Rusbult’s Investment Model](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-2-5-rusbults-investment-model.md)
  - [9.2.6 Evaluation of Rusbult's Investment Model](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-2-6-evaluation-of-rusbults-investment-model.md)
  - [9.2.7 Relationship Breakdown](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-2-7-relationship-breakdown.md)
  - [9.2.8 Studies on Relationship Breakdown](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-2-8-studies-on-relationship-breakdown.md)
  - [9.2.9 Evaluation of Relationship Breakdown](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-2-9-evaluation-of-relationship-breakdown.md)
  - [9.2.10 End of Topic Test - Romantic relationships](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-2-10-end-of-topic-test-romantic-relationships.md)
- 9.3 Relationships: Online (A2 only)
  - [9.3.1 Online Relationships](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-3-1-online-relationships.md)
  - [9.3.2 Evaluation of Reduced Cues & Hyperpersonal](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-3-2-evaluation-of-reduced-cues-and-hyperpersonal.md)
  - [9.3.3 Self Disclosure in Online Relationships](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-3-3-self-disclosure-in-online-relationships.md)
  - [9.3.4 Parasocial Relationships](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-3-4-parasocial-relationships.md)
  - [9.3.5 Attachment Theory & Parasocial Relationships](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-3-5-attachment-theory-and-parasocial-relationships.md)
  - [9.3.6 Evaluation of Parasocial Relationship Theories](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-3-6-evaluation-of-parasocial-relationship-theories.md)
  - [9.3.7 End of Topic Test - Online Relationships](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/9-3-7-end-of-topic-test-online-relationships.md)

### 10 Option 1: Gender (A2 only)
- 10.1 Gender (A2 only)
  - [10.1.1 Biological Sex](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/10-1-1-biological-sex.md)
  - [10.1.2 The Role of Hormones in Biological Sex](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/10-1-2-the-role-of-hormones-in-biological-sex.md)
  - [10.1.3 Biological Explanations of Gender Development](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/10-1-3-biological-explanations-of-gender-development.md)
  - [10.1.4 Gender Identities & BSRI](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/10-1-4-gender-identities-and-bsri.md)
  - [10.1.5 Kohlberg’s Theory of Gender Constancy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/10-1-5-kohlbergs-theory-of-gender-constancy.md)
  - [10.1.6 Evaluation of Kohlberg's Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/10-1-6-evaluation-of-kohlbergs-theory.md)
  - [10.1.7 Gender Schema Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/10-1-7-gender-schema-theory.md)
  - [10.1.8 Social Approach to Gender Development](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/10-1-8-social-approach-to-gender-development.md)
  - [10.1.9 Criticisms of Social Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/10-1-9-criticisms-of-social-theory.md)
  - [10.1.10 Media Influence on Gender Development](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/10-1-10-media-influence-on-gender-development.md)
  - [10.1.11 Gender Incongruence](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/10-1-11-gender-incongruence.md)
  - [10.1.12 End of Topic Test - Gender](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/10-1-12-end-of-topic-test-gender.md)

### 11 Option 1: Cognition & Development (A2 only)
- 11.1 Cognition & Development (A2 only)
  - [11.1.1 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-1-piagets-theory-of-cognitive-development-1.md)
  - [11.1.2 Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-2-piagets-theory-of-cognitive-development-2.md)
  - [11.1.3 Schema Accommodation Assimilation & Equilibration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-3-schema-accommodation-assimilation-and-equilibration.md)
  - [11.1.4 Piaget & Inhelder’s Three Mountains Task (1956)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-4-piaget-and-inhelders-three-mountains-task-1956.md)
  - [11.1.5 Conservation & Class Inclusion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-5-conservation-and-class-inclusion.md)
  - [11.1.6 Evaluation of Piaget](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-6-evaluation-of-piaget.md)
  - [11.1.7 Vygotsky](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-7-vygotsky.md)
  - [11.1.8 Evaluation of Vygotsky](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-8-evaluation-of-vygotsky.md)
  - [11.1.9 Baillargeon](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-9-baillargeon.md)
  - [11.1.10 Baillargeon's studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-10-baillargeons-studies.md)
  - [11.1.11 Evaluation of Baillargeon](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-11-evaluation-of-baillargeon.md)
  - [11.1.12 Sense of Self & Theory of Mind](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-12-sense-of-self-and-theory-of-mind.md)
  - [11.1.13 Baron-Cohen Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-13-baron-cohen-studies.md)
  - [11.1.14 Selman’s Five Levels of Perspective Taking](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-14-selmans-five-levels-of-perspective-taking.md)
  - [11.1.15 Biological Basis of Social Cognition](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-15-biological-basis-of-social-cognition.md)
  - [11.1.16 Evaluation of Biological Basis of Social Cognition](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-16-evaluation-of-biological-basis-of-social-cognition.md)
  - [11.1.17 Issues in Social Neuroscience](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-17-issues-in-social-neuroscience.md)
  - [11.1.18 Top Grade AO2/AO3  - Cognition & Development](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-18-top-grade-ao2ao3-cognition-and-development.md)
  - [11.1.19 End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-19-end-of-topic-test-cognition-and-development-1.md)
  - [11.1.20 End of Topic Test - Cognition & Development 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-20-end-of-topic-test-cognition-and-development-2.md)
  - [11.1.21 End of Topic Test - Cognition 3](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/11-1-21-end-of-topic-test-cognition-3.md)

### 12 Option 2: Schizophrenia (A2 only)
- 12.1 Schizophrenia: Diagnosis (A2 only)
  - [12.1.1 Symptoms of Schizophrenia](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-1-1-symptoms-of-schizophrenia.md)
  - [12.1.2 Issues in Diagnosis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-1-2-issues-in-diagnosis.md)
  - [12.1.3 Pinto (2017) & Copeland (1971)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-1-3-pinto-2017-and-copeland-1971.md)
  - [12.1.4 End of Topic Test - Schizophrenia](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-1-4-end-of-topic-test-schizophrenia.md)
- 12.2 Schizophrenia: Treatment (A2 only)
  - [12.2.1 Family-Based Psychological Explanations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-1-family-based-psychological-explanations.md)
  - [12.2.2 Evaluation of Family-Based Explanations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-2-evaluation-of-family-based-explanations.md)
  - [12.2.3 Cognitive Explanations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-3-cognitive-explanations.md)
  - [12.2.4 Drug Therapies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-4-drug-therapies.md)
  - [12.2.5 Evaluation of Drug Therapies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-5-evaluation-of-drug-therapies.md)
  - [12.2.6 Biological Explanations for Schizophrenia](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-6-biological-explanations-for-schizophrenia.md)
  - [12.2.7 Dopamine Hypothesis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-7-dopamine-hypothesis.md)
  - [12.2.8 Psychological Therapies 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-8-psychological-therapies-1.md)
  - [12.2.9 Psychological Therapies 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-9-psychological-therapies-2.md)
  - [12.2.10 Interactionist Approach - Diathesis-Stress Model](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-10-interactionist-approach-diathesis-stress-model.md)
  - [12.2.11 Interactionist Approach - Triggers & Treatment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-11-interactionist-approach-triggers-and-treatment.md)
  - [12.2.12 Evaluation of the Interactionist Approach](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-12-evaluation-of-the-interactionist-approach.md)
  - [12.2.13 Evaluation of Psychological Therapies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-13-evaluation-of-psychological-therapies.md)
  - [12.2.14 Diagnostic Misconceptions - CBT & CBTp](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-14-diagnostic-misconceptions-cbt-and-cbtp.md)
  - [12.2.15 End of Topic Test - Treatments 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-15-end-of-topic-test-treatments-1.md)
  - [12.2.16 End of Topic Test - Treatments 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/12-2-16-end-of-topic-test-treatments-2.md)

### 13 Option 2: Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
- 13.1 Eating Behaviour (A2 only)
  - [13.1.1 Explanations for Food Preferences](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/13-1-1-explanations-for-food-preferences.md)
  - [13.1.2 Birch et al (1987) & Lowe et al (2004)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/13-1-2-birch-et-al-1987-and-lowe-et-al-2004.md)
  - [13.1.3 Control of Eating Behaviours](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/13-1-3-control-of-eating-behaviours.md)
  - [13.1.4 Control of Eating Behaviour: Leptin](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/13-1-4-control-of-eating-behaviour-leptin.md)
  - [13.1.5 Biological Explanations for Anorexia Nervosa](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/13-1-5-biological-explanations-for-anorexia-nervosa.md)
  - [13.1.6 Psychological Explanations: Family Systems Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/13-1-6-psychological-explanations-family-systems-theory.md)
  - [13.1.7 Psychological Explanations: Social Learning Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/13-1-7-psychological-explanations-social-learning-theory.md)
  - [13.1.8 Psychological Explanations: Cognitive Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/13-1-8-psychological-explanations-cognitive-theory.md)
  - [13.1.9 Biological Explanations for Obesity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/13-1-9-biological-explanations-for-obesity.md)
  - [13.1.10 Biological Explanations: Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/13-1-10-biological-explanations-studies.md)
  - [13.1.11 Psychological Explanations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/13-1-11-psychological-explanations.md)
  - [13.1.12 Psychological Explanations: Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/13-1-12-psychological-explanations-studies.md)
  - [13.1.13 End of Topic Test - Eating Behaviour](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/13-1-13-end-of-topic-test-eating-behaviour.md)

### 14 Option 2: Stress (A2 only)
- 14.1 Stress (A2 only)
  - [14.1.1 Physiology of Stress](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-1-physiology-of-stress.md)
  - [14.1.2 Role of Stress in Illness](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-2-role-of-stress-in-illness.md)
  - [14.1.3 Role of Stress in Illness: Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-3-role-of-stress-in-illness-studies.md)
  - [14.1.4 Social Readjustment Rating Scales](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-4-social-readjustment-rating-scales.md)
  - [14.1.5 Hassles & Uplifts Scales](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-5-hassles-and-uplifts-scales.md)
  - [14.1.6 Stress, Workload & Control](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-6-stress-workload-and-control.md)
  - [14.1.7 Stress Level Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-7-stress-level-studies.md)
  - [14.1.8 Physiological Measures of Stress](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-8-physiological-measures-of-stress.md)
  - [14.1.9 Individual Differences](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-9-individual-differences.md)
  - [14.1.10 Stress & Gender](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-10-stress-and-gender.md)
  - [14.1.11 Drug Therapy & Biofeedback for Stress](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-11-drug-therapy-and-biofeedback-for-stress.md)
  - [14.1.12 Stress Inoculation Therapy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-12-stress-inoculation-therapy.md)
  - [14.1.13 Social Support & Stress](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-13-social-support-and-stress.md)
  - [14.1.14 End of Topic Test - Stress 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-14-end-of-topic-test-stress-1.md)
  - [14.1.15 End of Topic Test - Stress 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/14-1-15-end-of-topic-test-stress-2.md)

### 15 Option 3: Aggression (A2 only)
- 15.1 Aggression: Physiological (A2 only)
  - [15.1.1 Neural Mechanisms](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-1-1-neural-mechanisms.md)
  - [15.1.2 Serotonin](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-1-2-serotonin.md)
  - [15.1.3 Hormonal Mechanisms](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-1-3-hormonal-mechanisms.md)
  - [15.1.4 Genetic Factors](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-1-4-genetic-factors.md)
  - [15.1.5 Genetic Factors 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-1-5-genetic-factors-2.md)
  - [15.1.6 Ethological Explanation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-1-6-ethological-explanation.md)
  - [15.1.7 Innate Releasing Mechanisms & Fixed Action Pattern](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-1-7-innate-releasing-mechanisms-and-fixed-action-pattern.md)
  - [15.1.8 Evolutionary Explanations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-1-8-evolutionary-explanations.md)
  - [15.1.9 Buss et al (1992) - Sex Differences in Jealousy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-1-9-buss-et-al-1992-sex-differences-in-jealousy.md)
  - [15.1.10 Evaluation of Evolutionary Explanations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-1-10-evaluation-of-evolutionary-explanations.md)
  - [15.1.11 End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-1-11-end-of-topic-test-aggression-physiological-1.md)
  - [15.1.12 End of Topic Test - Aggression: Physiological 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-1-12-end-of-topic-test-aggression-physiological-2.md)
- 15.2 Aggression: Social Psychological (A2 only)
  - [15.2.1 Social Psychological Explanation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-1-social-psychological-explanation.md)
  - [15.2.2 Buss (1963) - Frustration/Aggression](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-2-buss-1963-frustrationaggression.md)
  - [15.2.3 Social Psychological Explanation 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-3-social-psychological-explanation-2.md)
  - [15.2.4 Social Learning Theory (SLT) 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-4-social-learning-theory-slt-1.md)
  - [15.2.5 Social Learning Theory (SLT) 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-5-social-learning-theory-slt-2.md)
  - [15.2.6 Limitations of Social Learning Theory (SLT)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-6-limitations-of-social-learning-theory-slt.md)
  - [15.2.7 Deindividuation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-7-deindividuation.md)
  - [15.2.8 Deindividuation 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-8-deindividuation-2.md)
  - [15.2.9 Deindividuation - Diener et al (1976)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-9-deindividuation-diener-et-al-1976.md)
  - [15.2.10 End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-10-end-of-topic-test-aggression-social-psychology.md)
  - [15.2.11 Institutional Aggression: Prisons](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-11-institutional-aggression-prisons.md)
  - [15.2.12 Evaluation of Dispositional & Situational](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-12-evaluation-of-dispositional-and-situational.md)
  - [15.2.13 Influence of Computer Games](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-13-influence-of-computer-games.md)
  - [15.2.14 Influence of Television](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-14-influence-of-television.md)
  - [15.2.15 Evaluation of Studies on Media](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-15-evaluation-of-studies-on-media.md)
  - [15.2.16 Desensitisation & Disinhibition](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-16-desensitisation-and-disinhibition.md)
  - [15.2.17 Cognitive Priming](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-17-cognitive-priming.md)
  - [15.2.18 End of Topic Test - Aggression: Social Psychology](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/15-2-18-end-of-topic-test-aggression-social-psychology.md)

### 16 Option 3: Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
- 16.1 Forensic Psychology (A2 only)
  - [16.1.1 Defining Crime](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-1-defining-crime.md)
  - [16.1.2 Measuring Crime](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-2-measuring-crime.md)
  - [16.1.3 Offender Profiling](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-3-offender-profiling.md)
  - [16.1.4 Evaluation of Offender Profiling](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-4-evaluation-of-offender-profiling.md)
  - [16.1.5 John Duffy Case Study](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-5-john-duffy-case-study.md)
  - [16.1.6 Biological Explanations 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-6-biological-explanations-1.md)
  - [16.1.7 Biological Explanations 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-7-biological-explanations-2.md)
  - [16.1.8 Evaluation- Biological Explanations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-8-evaluation-biological-explanations.md)
  - [16.1.9 Cognitive Explanations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-9-cognitive-explanations.md)
  - [16.1.10 Moral Reasoning](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-10-moral-reasoning.md)
  - [16.1.11 Differential Association Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-11-differential-association-theory.md)
  - [16.1.12 Custodial Sentencing](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-12-custodial-sentencing.md)
  - [16.1.13 Effects of Prison](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-13-effects-of-prison.md)
  - [16.1.14 Evaluation of the Effects of Prison](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-14-evaluation-of-the-effects-of-prison.md)
  - [16.1.15 Behavioural Treatments & Therapies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-15-behavioural-treatments-and-therapies.md)
  - [16.1.16 Effectiveness of Behavioural Treatments](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-16-effectiveness-of-behavioural-treatments.md)
  - [16.1.17 Restorative Justice](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-17-restorative-justice.md)
  - [16.1.18 End of Topic Test - Forensic 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-18-end-of-topic-test-forensic-1.md)
  - [16.1.19 End of Topic Test - Forensic 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/16-1-19-end-of-topic-test-forensic-2.md)

### 17 Option 3: Addiction (A2 only)
- 17.1 Addiction (A2 only)
  - [17.1.1 Definition](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-1-definition.md)
  - [17.1.2 Brain Neurochemistry Explanation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-2-brain-neurochemistry-explanation.md)
  - [17.1.3 Learning Theory Explanation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-3-learning-theory-explanation.md)
  - [17.1.4 Evaluation of a Learning Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-4-evaluation-of-a-learning-theory.md)
  - [17.1.5 Cognitive Bias](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-5-cognitive-bias.md)
  - [17.1.6 Griffiths on Cognitive Bias](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-6-griffiths-on-cognitive-bias.md)
  - [17.1.7 Evaluation of Cognitive Theory (A2 only)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-7-evaluation-of-cognitive-theory-a2-only.md)
  - [17.1.8 Gambling Addiction & Learning Theory](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-8-gambling-addiction-and-learning-theory.md)
  - [17.1.9 Social Influences on Addiction 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-9-social-influences-on-addiction-1.md)
  - [17.1.10 Social Influences on Addiction 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-10-social-influences-on-addiction-2.md)
  - [17.1.11 Personal Influences  on Addiction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-11-personal-influences-on-addiction.md)
  - [17.1.12 Genetic Explanations of Addiction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-12-genetic-explanations-of-addiction.md)
  - [17.1.13 End of Topic Test - Addiction 1](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-13-end-of-topic-test-addiction-1.md)
  - [17.1.14 End of Topic Test - Addiction 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-1-14-end-of-topic-test-addiction-2.md)
- 17.2 Treating Addiction (A2 only)
  - [17.2.1 Drug Therapy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-2-1-drug-therapy.md)
  - [17.2.2 Behavioural Interventions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-2-2-behavioural-interventions.md)
  - [17.2.3 Cognitive Behavioural Therapy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-2-3-cognitive-behavioural-therapy.md)
  - [17.2.4 Six Stage Model of Behaviour Change](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-2-4-six-stage-model-of-behaviour-change.md)
  - [17.2.5 End of Topic Test - Treating](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/psychology/aqa/17-2-5-end-of-topic-test-treating.md)