Source: https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-2-2-constitutional-reform-since-1997-2 [Revision notes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes.md) › [A Level](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level.md) › [Political Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies.md) › [Edexcel](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel.md) › Constitutional Reform since 1997 (2) # Constitutional Reform since 1997 (2) Political Studies: Edexcel A Level, topic 8.2.2 ## Human Rights Act The 1998 Human Rights Act (HRA) incorporated the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) into UK law. ### Human Rights Act ![Human Rights Act](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-07/d9332712-b5e5-49fa-8ffe-3bd553331035/Bird-Flying-Freedom-Chain.jpg) - The 1998 Human Rights Act (HRA) incorporated the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) into UK law. - The freedoms contained in the ECHR include the freedoms to life, to a fair trial, of expression and from discrimination among many others. - The ECHR requires states to hold free and fair elections, abolish the death penalty, preserve family life and give foreigners the same rights as all citizens in a state. ### HRA: Supreme Court ![HRA: Supreme Court](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-07/db1c4f92-dbfd-4b81-ba7f-921de21296fd/Judge-Gavil-Trial-Court-Wig-.jpg) - The Human Rights Act (HRA) means that any public body cannot act in a way that would break with the convention and that the judiciary must make rulings that are compatible with it. - The Supreme Court can issue a Declaration of Incompatibility where primary legislation conflicts with the HRA, but cannot strike it down due to parliamentary sovereignty. Secondary legislation can be disapplied if incompatible. ### Human Rights Act did enough ![Human Rights Act did enough](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-03/3e4dde5e-b29f-4144-bd98-2375a572f395/shutterstock_644123227.jpg) - The fundamental rights of all British Citizens are very clearly laid out in one easily accessible piece of legislation. - There was an 8-fold increase in the number of human rights cases and claims brought to the High Court after the Human Rights Act was passed. ### More reform is needed ![More reform is needed](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/48aebd73-4676-49b6-97f4-595e3345bb94/writing-write-.jpg) - Some Conservatives resent the link to the European Court of Human Rights at Strasbourg and want to replace the HRA with a British Bill of Rights that defines certain rights more narrowly. - Despite the HRA, it is possible for the government to restrict the human rights of individuals. - In 2005 the government introduced control orders, allowing the authorities to restrict the movements of suspected terrorists. - In order to do this, they simply had to declare an exemption from Article 5 of the HRA for those who fall under suspicion. ## Constitutional Reform Act: Supreme Court The 2005 Constitutional Reform Act created a separate Supreme Court as the highest court of appeal in the UK. Before this, the UK's senior judges sat in the House of Lords (known as the Law Lords). ### Judicial reform ![Judicial reform](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/3930dd21-9020-45d4-823b-d07a2f1f3fc5/judge-council-.jpg) - The 2005 Constitutional Reform Act has three major effects: - The Act separated the executive and the judiciary. - The Act formed a Supreme Court which separated parliament from the judiciary. - The Act reformed the process for senior judicial appointments. ### Lord Chancellor ![Lord Chancellor](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/93709d06-4889-4a5e-9539-8335d7c0087c/Chancellor-Bethmann-Hollweg-.jpg) - The Act split the powers of the Lord Chancellor into 3 different roles as previously the holder of this position had been a member of the Cabinet, speaker of the House of Lords and head of the judiciary with the power to appoint judges. - Now the Lord Chancellor is simply a government role with the Lord Speaker presiding over the House of Lords and the Lord Chief Justice as head of the judiciary. - These reforms made the judiciary more independent. ### Supreme Court ![Supreme Court](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/e37de78a-509e-4b98-8d63-79bf69725215/shutterstock_268333241.jpg) - The Supreme Court was formed to replace the ‘Law Lords’ as the UK’s highest court of appeal. - This reform separated parliament from the judiciary. - Justices must retire at 75, following the Public Sector Pensions and Judicial Offices Act 2022, which raised the previous mandatory retirement age from 70. ### Appointments ![Appointments](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-03/042f6872-0d7d-41e7-83f4-e42aae3ed63d/shutterstock_73792807.jpg) - Prior to the reforms, senior judicial appointments were made by the prime minister and Lord Chancellor, who are political figures. - The Act established a Judicial Appointments Commission (JAC) to recommend candidates based solely on their legal qualifications and ability. - The JAC recommends candidates to the Lord Chancellor, who makes the final appointment. The Lord Chancellor may request reconsideration once, but cannot appoint outside JAC recommendations. ### Reforms did enough ![Reforms did enough](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/biology/2.1.1%20Cells,%20Tissues%20and%20Organs/tree-2996222_640.jpg) - There is now a clear separation of the 3 branches of government, which prevents abuse of power. - The judiciary is physically and constitutionally separate from the executive and legislature, allowing for greater judicial independence, strengthening the rule of law. ### More reform is needed ![More reform is needed](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/7b8a0339-705c-405a-b909-e48ebbfbb045/weak-strong.jpg) - The Supreme Court is much weaker than its counterparts in most other liberal democracies (with codified constitutions). It cannot strike down legislation, as that would weaken (or perhaps destroy) parliamentary sovereignty. - In the US, impeachment resolutions have been tabled against justices, illustrating stronger accountability mechanisms. - The composition of the Supreme Court is not very diverse; however, neither is the group of well-qualified, experienced judges from which they have to choose their ranks and this is a problem in the judiciary as a whole. ## Electoral Reform Electoral reform has remained an important issue in UK politics for many years including around voting age and the electoral system. ### Electoral system ![Electoral system](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/2359d011-453c-411d-b452-9db1336e3f61/council-chambers-.jpg) - New Labour introduced proportional representation for elections to the Scottish Parliament, Senedd Cymru and Northern Irish Assembly, and formerly the European Parliament. - The additional member system (AMS) remains the system for Scottish Parliament elections. - The Senedd Cymru (Members and Elections) Act 2024 replaced AMS with a closed list proportional system (seats allocated using the D'Hondt formula) for Senedd elections from 2026. - The single transferable vote (STV) was used for the Northern Irish Assembly elections. ### Electoral system: AV ![Electoral system: AV](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/14bc4cce-1f6e-40f0-85df-4ecbe020d514/polling-station-vote-election.jpg) - In 2011 a referendum was held on introducing the alternative vote (AV) system for general elections to parliament at Westminster. - The referendum rejected the proposed electoral reform and a first past the post system (FPTP) remains the system used. ### Voting age ![Voting age](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/8b8fe72e-5d3c-4418-a049-9fd23954a4b6/teenagers-boy-girl.jpg) - The voting age for UK citizens is 18 for UK general elections. - In the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, the voting age was lowered to 16 for the first time. - Scotland and Wales already allow 16–17-year-olds to vote in devolved/local elections. - The Representation of the People Bill 2024–26, at its second reading in March 2026, proposes to extend the vote to 16 and 17-year-olds for UK Parliament elections, potentially enfranchising approximately 1.7 million young people. ## Test yourself on Constitutional Reform since 1997 (2) - What do some Conservatives want to replace the Human Rights Act with? - Why might more Supreme Court reform be needed? - Which role was split into three different positions in parliament by the Constitutional Reform Act? - What was the voting age for the 2014 Scottish independence referendum? [Practise this topic for free](https://app.senecalearning.com/classroom/course/187b17d0-dbde-4633-8fc0-0a556c3291b1/section/7eae3116-bcbf-4257-b0e9-12004d7deadf/session) - Previous topic: [8.2.1 Constitutional Reform since 1997 (1)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-2-1-constitutional-reform-since-1997-1.md) - Next topic: [8.2.3 Constitutional Reform 2010-15 & Reforms Since 2015](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-2-3-constitutional-reform-2010-15-and-reforms-since-2015.md) ## Political Studies: Edexcel A Level contents ### 1 Democracy & Participation - 1.1 Representative & Direct Democracy - [1.1.1 Direct Democracy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-1-1-direct-democracy.md) - [1.1.2 Pros & Cons of Direct Democracy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-1-2-pros-and-cons-of-direct-democracy.md) - [1.1.3 Representative Democracy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-1-3-representative-democracy.md) - [1.1.4 Pros & Cons of Representative Democracy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-1-4-pros-and-cons-of-representative-democracy.md) - [1.1.5 Comparing Types of Democracy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-1-5-comparing-types-of-democracy.md) - [1.1.6 Case for Democratic Reform](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-1-6-case-for-democratic-reform.md) - [1.1.7 End of Topic Test - Types of Democracy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-1-7-end-of-topic-test-types-of-democracy.md) - [1.1.8 Top Grade AO3/4 - Types of Democracy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-1-8-top-grade-ao34-types-of-democracy.md) - 1.2 Wider Franchise & Suffrage - [1.2.1 History of the UK Franchise](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-2-1-history-of-the-uk-franchise.md) - [1.2.2 Campaigns for Suffrage](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-2-2-campaigns-for-suffrage.md) - [1.2.3 End of Topic Test - Franchise & Suffrage](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-2-3-end-of-topic-test-franchise-and-suffrage.md) - 1.3 Pressure Groups & Other Influences - [1.3.1 Types of Pressure Group](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-3-1-types-of-pressure-group.md) - [1.3.2 Functions of Pressure Groups](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-3-2-functions-of-pressure-groups.md) - [1.3.3 How Pressure Groups Influence](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-3-3-how-pressure-groups-influence.md) - [1.3.4 Case-Study Examples](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-3-4-case-study-examples.md) - [1.3.5 Other Collective Orgs & Groups](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-3-5-other-collective-orgs-and-groups.md) - [1.3.6 End of Topic Test - Pressure Groups & Influences](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-3-6-end-of-topic-test-pressure-groups-and-influences.md) - [1.3.7 Application Questions - Pressure Groups](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-3-7-application-questions-pressure-groups.md) - 1.4 Rights in Context - [1.4.1 Development of Rights in the UK](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-4-1-development-of-rights-in-the-uk.md) - [1.4.2 The UK's Rights-Based Culture](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-4-2-the-uks-rights-based-culture.md) - [1.4.3 End of Topic Test - Rights in Context](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-4-3-end-of-topic-test-rights-in-context.md) ### 2 Political Parties - 2.1 How Political Parties Work - [2.1.1 Functions & Features of UK Political Parties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-1-1-functions-and-features-of-uk-political-parties.md) - [2.1.2 Funding of UK Political Parties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-1-2-funding-of-uk-political-parties.md) - [2.1.3 UK Funding Reform](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-1-3-uk-funding-reform.md) - [2.1.4 End of Topic Test - Political Parties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-1-4-end-of-topic-test-political-parties.md) - [2.1.5 Top Grade AO3/4 - Political Parties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-1-5-top-grade-ao34-political-parties.md) - 2.2 Established Political Parties - [2.2.1 The Conservative Party: History](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-2-1-the-conservative-party-history.md) - [2.2.2 The Conservative Party: Recent Leaders](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-2-2-the-conservative-party-recent-leaders.md) - [2.2.3 The Labour Party](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-2-3-the-labour-party.md) - [2.2.4 The Liberal Democrat Party](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-2-4-the-liberal-democrat-party.md) - [2.2.5 Ideas & Policies of UK Parties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-2-5-ideas-and-policies-of-uk-parties.md) - [2.2.6 End of Topic Test - Established Parties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-2-6-end-of-topic-test-established-parties.md) - [2.2.7 Application Questions - Established Parties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-2-7-application-questions-established-parties.md) - 2.3 Emerging & Minor Political Parties - [2.3.1 Minority Parties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-3-1-minority-parties.md) - [2.3.2 Minority Parties Case Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-3-2-minority-parties-case-studies.md) - [2.3.3 End of Topic Test - Minor Parties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-3-3-end-of-topic-test-minor-parties.md) - 2.4 UK Political Parties in Context - [2.4.1 Different Party Systems](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-4-1-different-party-systems.md) - [2.4.2 Political Spectrum](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-4-2-political-spectrum.md) - [2.4.3 Factors Affecting Party Success](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-4-3-factors-affecting-party-success.md) - [2.4.4 End of Topic Test - Parties in Context](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-4-4-end-of-topic-test-parties-in-context.md) - [2.4.5 Application Questions - Parties in Context](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-4-5-application-questions-parties-in-context.md) ### 3 Electoral Systems - 3.1 Different Electoral Systems - [3.1.1 FPTP & STV](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/3-1-1-fptp-and-stv.md) - [3.1.2 AMS & SV](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/3-1-2-ams-and-sv.md) - [3.1.3 End of Topic Test - Electoral Systems](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/3-1-3-end-of-topic-test-electoral-systems.md) - [3.1.4 Top Grade AO3/4 - Electoral Systems](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/3-1-4-top-grade-ao34-electoral-systems.md) - 3.2 Referendums & How They Are Used - [3.2.1 Case For & Against Referendums](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/3-2-1-case-for-and-against-referendums.md) - [3.2.2 End of Topic Test - Referendums](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/3-2-2-end-of-topic-test-referendums.md) - [3.2.3 A-A* (AO3/4) - Referendums](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/3-2-3-a-a-ao34-referendums.md) - 3.3 Electoral System Analysis - [3.3.1 Electoral System Analysis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/3-3-1-electoral-system-analysis.md) - [3.3.2 End of Topic Test - System Analysis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/3-3-2-end-of-topic-test-system-analysis.md) - [3.3.3 A-A* (AO3/4) - Electoral System Analysis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/3-3-3-a-a-ao34-electoral-system-analysis.md) ### 4 Voting Behaviour & the Media - 4.1 General Election Case Studies - [4.1.1 Case Studies of Elections](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/4-1-1-case-studies-of-elections.md) - [4.1.2 Factors Influencing Voting in Elections](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/4-1-2-factors-influencing-voting-in-elections.md) - [4.1.3 End of Topic Test - Case Studies & Factors](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/4-1-3-end-of-topic-test-case-studies-and-factors.md) - [4.1.4 A-A* (AO3/4) - Case Studies & Voting](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/4-1-4-a-a-ao34-case-studies-and-voting.md) - 4.2 Media Influence - [4.2.1 Media Influence](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/4-2-1-media-influence.md) - [4.2.2 End of Topic Test - Media Influence](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/4-2-2-end-of-topic-test-media-influence.md) ### 5 Conservatism - 5.1 Conservatism: Core Ideas & Principles - [5.1.1 Pragmatism & Tradition](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-1-1-pragmatism-and-tradition.md) - [5.1.2 Human Imperfection & Organic Society/State](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-1-2-human-imperfection-and-organic-societystate.md) - [5.1.3 Authority & Hierarchy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-1-3-authority-and-hierarchy.md) - [5.1.4 Paternalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-1-4-paternalism.md) - [5.1.5 Empiricism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-1-5-empiricism.md) - [5.1.6 Anti-Permissiveness](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-1-6-anti-permissiveness.md) - [5.1.7 Radical Conservative Ideas](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-1-7-radical-conservative-ideas.md) - [5.1.8 End of Topic Test - Core Conservatism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-1-8-end-of-topic-test-core-conservatism.md) - 5.2 Conservatism: Differing Views & Tensions - [5.2.1 Traditional Conservatism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-2-1-traditional-conservatism.md) - [5.2.2 One-Nation Conservatism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-2-2-one-nation-conservatism.md) - [5.2.3 New Right Conservatism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-2-3-new-right-conservatism.md) - [5.2.4 End of Topic Test - Different Views](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-2-4-end-of-topic-test-different-views.md) - 5.3 Conservative Thinkers & Ideas - [5.3.1 Thomas Hobbes & Edmund Burke](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-3-1-thomas-hobbes-and-edmund-burke.md) - [5.3.2 Michael Oakeshott & Ayn Rand](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-3-2-michael-oakeshott-and-ayn-rand.md) - [5.3.3 Robert Nozick](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-3-3-robert-nozick.md) - [5.3.4 End of Topic Test - Conservative Thinkers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-3-4-end-of-topic-test-conservative-thinkers.md) - [5.3.5 A-A* (AO3/4) - Conservatism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-3-5-a-a-ao34-conservatism.md) ### 6 Liberalism - 6.1 Liberalism: Core Ideas & Principles - [6.1.1 Individualism & Freedom/Liberty](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-1-1-individualism-and-freedomliberty.md) - [6.1.2 The State & Rationalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-1-2-the-state-and-rationalism.md) - [6.1.3 Equality & Social Justice](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-1-3-equality-and-social-justice.md) - [6.1.4 Liberal Democracy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-1-4-liberal-democracy.md) - [6.1.5 Other Important Liberal Ideas](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-1-5-other-important-liberal-ideas.md) - [6.1.6 End of Topic Test - Liberalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-1-6-end-of-topic-test-liberalism.md) - 6.2 Differing Views And Tensions Within Liberalism - [6.2.1 Classical Liberalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-2-1-classical-liberalism.md) - [6.2.2 Modern Liberalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-2-2-modern-liberalism.md) - [6.2.3 End of Topic Test - Tensions & Views](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-2-3-end-of-topic-test-tensions-and-views.md) - 6.3 Liberal Thinkers & Ideas - [6.3.1 John Locke & Mary Wollstonecraft](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-3-1-john-locke-and-mary-wollstonecraft.md) - [6.3.2 John Stuart Mill & John Rawls](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-3-2-john-stuart-mill-and-john-rawls.md) - [6.3.3 Betty Friedan](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-3-3-betty-friedan.md) - [6.3.4 End of Topic Test - Thinkers & Ideas](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-3-4-end-of-topic-test-thinkers-and-ideas.md) - [6.3.5 A-A* - Liberalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-3-5-a-a-liberalism.md) ### 7 Socialism - 7.1 Socialism: Core Ideas & Principles - [7.1.1 Fraternity & Co-operation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-1-1-fraternity-and-co-operation.md) - [7.1.2 Capitalism & Common Ownership](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-1-2-capitalism-and-common-ownership.md) - [7.1.3 Communism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-1-3-communism.md) - [7.1.4 Collectivism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-1-4-collectivism.md) - [7.1.5 Common Humanity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-1-5-common-humanity.md) - [7.1.6 Equality](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-1-6-equality.md) - [7.1.7 Social Class & Workers' Control](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-1-7-social-class-and-workers-control.md) - [7.1.8 End of Topic Test - Socialism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-1-8-end-of-topic-test-socialism.md) - 7.2 Differing Views And Tensions Within Socialism - [7.2.1 Differing Views And Tensions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-2-1-differing-views-and-tensions.md) - [7.2.2 End of Topic Test - Views & Tensions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-2-2-end-of-topic-test-views-and-tensions.md) - 7.3 Socialist Thinkers and Their Ideas - [7.3.1 Socialist Thinkers: Marx & Engels](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-3-1-socialist-thinkers-marx-and-engels.md) - [7.3.2 Socialist Thinkers: Webb & Luxemburg](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-3-2-socialist-thinkers-webb-and-luxemburg.md) - [7.3.3 Socialist Thinkers: Crosland and Giddens](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-3-3-socialist-thinkers-crosland-and-giddens.md) - [7.3.4 End of Topic Test - Thinkers & Ideas](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-3-4-end-of-topic-test-thinkers-and-ideas.md) - [7.3.5 A-A* (AO3/4) - Socialism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-3-5-a-a-ao34-socialism.md) ### 8 The UK Constitution - 8.1 Nature & Sources of UK Constitution - [8.1.1 Development of the UK Constitution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-1-1-development-of-the-uk-constitution.md) - [8.1.2 Nature of the UK Constitution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-1-2-nature-of-the-uk-constitution.md) - [8.1.3 Sources of the UK Constitution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-1-3-sources-of-the-uk-constitution.md) - [8.1.4 End of Topic Test - Nature & Sources](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-1-4-end-of-topic-test-nature-and-sources.md) - 8.2 Constitutional Change since 1997 - [8.2.1 Constitutional Reform since 1997 (1)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-2-1-constitutional-reform-since-1997-1.md) - [8.2.2 Constitutional Reform since 1997 (2)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-2-2-constitutional-reform-since-1997-2.md) - [8.2.3 Constitutional Reform 2010-15 & Reforms Since 2015](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-2-3-constitutional-reform-2010-15-and-reforms-since-2015.md) - [8.2.4 End of Topic Test - Reform](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-2-4-end-of-topic-test-reform.md) - [8.2.5 Application Questions - Reform](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-2-5-application-questions-reform.md) - 8.3 Role & Powers of Devolved UK Bodies - [8.3.1 Devolution in England & Scotland](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-3-1-devolution-in-england-and-scotland.md) - [8.3.2 Devolution in Wales & Northern Ireland](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-3-2-devolution-in-wales-and-northern-ireland.md) - [8.3.3 End of Topic Test - Devolution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-3-3-end-of-topic-test-devolution.md) - 8.4 Debates on Constitutional Reform - [8.4.1 Constitutional Reform & Devolution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-4-1-constitutional-reform-and-devolution.md) - [8.4.2 Should the Constitution Be Codified?](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-4-2-should-the-constitution-be-codified.md) - [8.4.3 End of Topic Test - Reform Debates](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-4-3-end-of-topic-test-reform-debates.md) - [8.4.4 Application Questions - Codification & Devolution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-4-4-application-questions-codification-and-devolution.md) ### 9 The UK Parliament - 9.1 Houses of Parliament - [9.1.1 Houses of Parliament](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-1-1-houses-of-parliament.md) - [9.1.2 Functions of the House of Commons](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-1-2-functions-of-the-house-of-commons.md) - [9.1.3 Functions of the House of Lords](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-1-3-functions-of-the-house-of-lords.md) - [9.1.4 End of Topic Test - Parliament](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-1-4-end-of-topic-test-parliament.md) - [9.1.5 Top Grade AO3/4 - Parliament](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-1-5-top-grade-ao34-parliament.md) - 9.2 Comparative Powers - [9.2.1 Comparative Powers of the Houses](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-2-1-comparative-powers-of-the-houses.md) - [9.2.2 End of Topic Test - Comparative Powers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-2-2-end-of-topic-test-comparative-powers.md) - 9.3 Legislative Process - [9.3.1 Legislative Stages](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-3-1-legislative-stages.md) - [9.3.2 Law-Making in the two Houses](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-3-2-law-making-in-the-two-houses.md) - [9.3.3 End of Topic Test - Legislative Process](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-3-3-end-of-topic-test-legislative-process.md) - 9.4 Parliament & Executive Interactions - [9.4.1 Backbenchers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-4-1-backbenchers.md) - [9.4.2 Select Committees](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-4-2-select-committees.md) - [9.4.3 The Opposition](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-4-3-the-opposition.md) - [9.4.4 Ministerial Question Time](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-4-4-ministerial-question-time.md) - [9.4.5 End of Topic Test - Parliament & Executive](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-4-5-end-of-topic-test-parliament-and-executive.md) - [9.4.6 Application Questions - Parliament & Executive](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-4-6-application-questions-parliament-and-executive.md) ### 10 The Prime Minister & the Executive - 10.1 The Executive - [10.1.1 Structure of the Executive](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-1-1-structure-of-the-executive.md) - [10.1.2 Roles of the Executive](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-1-2-roles-of-the-executive.md) - [10.1.3 Powers of the Executive](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-1-3-powers-of-the-executive.md) - [10.1.4 End of Topic Test - PM & Executive](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-1-4-end-of-topic-test-pm-and-executive.md) - 10.2 Ministerial Responsibility - [10.2.1 Individual Ministerial Responsibility](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-2-1-individual-ministerial-responsibility.md) - [10.2.2 Collective Ministerial Responsibility](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-2-2-collective-ministerial-responsibility.md) - [10.2.3 End of Topic Test - Ministerial Responsibility](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-2-3-end-of-topic-test-ministerial-responsibility.md) - 10.3 Prime Minister & the Cabinet - [10.3.1 Role of the Prime Minister](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-3-1-role-of-the-prime-minister.md) - [10.3.2 Prime Minister's Powers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-3-2-prime-ministers-powers.md) - [10.3.3 Limits on the Prime Minister's Powers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-3-3-limits-on-the-prime-ministers-powers.md) - [10.3.4 Role of the Cabinet](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-3-4-role-of-the-cabinet.md) - [10.3.5 Prime Minister & Cabinet: Relations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-3-5-prime-minister-and-cabinet-relations.md) - [10.3.6 Prime Minister & Cabinet: Balance of Power](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-3-6-prime-minister-and-cabinet-balance-of-power.md) - [10.3.7 Prime Minister & Cabinet: Case Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-3-7-prime-minister-and-cabinet-case-studies.md) - [10.3.8 End of Topic Test - PM & Cabinet](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-3-8-end-of-topic-test-pm-and-cabinet.md) - [10.3.9 Top Grade AO3/4 - PM & Cabinet](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-3-9-top-grade-ao34-pm-and-cabinet.md) ### 11 Relationships Between Government Branches - 11.1 The Supreme Court - [11.1.1 Role & Composition](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-1-1-role-and-composition.md) - [11.1.2 Principles & Influence of the Supreme Court](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-1-2-principles-and-influence-of-the-supreme-court.md) - [11.1.3 End of Topic Test - Supreme Court](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-1-3-end-of-topic-test-supreme-court.md) - 11.2 Parliament & Executive Relations - [11.2.1 Parliament & Executive: Questions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-2-1-parliament-and-executive-questions.md) - [11.2.2 Parliament & Executive: Committees](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-2-2-parliament-and-executive-committees.md) - [11.2.3 Parliament & Executive: Voting](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-2-3-parliament-and-executive-voting.md) - [11.2.4 Executive Dominance Over Parliament](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-2-4-executive-dominance-over-parliament.md) - [11.2.5 Balance of Power](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-2-5-balance-of-power.md) - [11.2.6 End of Topic Test - Parliament & Executive](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-2-6-end-of-topic-test-parliament-and-executive.md) - [11.2.7 A-A* (AO3/4) - Relationships Between Government](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-2-7-a-a-ao34-relationships-between-government.md) - 11.3 The European Union & the UK - [11.3.1 Aims & Policymaking of the European Union](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-3-1-aims-and-policymaking-of-the-european-union.md) - [11.3.2 End of Topic Test - EU & UK](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-3-2-end-of-topic-test-eu-and-uk.md) - 11.4 Sovereignty in the UK Political System - [11.4.1 Sovereignty in the UK Political System](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-4-1-sovereignty-in-the-uk-political-system.md) - [11.4.2 End of Topic Test - Sovereignty](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-4-2-end-of-topic-test-sovereignty.md) ### 12 US Constitution & Federalism - 12.1 Nature of the US Constitution - [12.1.1 Nature of the US Constitution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-1-1-nature-of-the-us-constitution.md) - [12.1.2 Nature: Positives & Negatives](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-1-2-nature-positives-and-negatives.md) - [12.1.3 Constitutional Framework](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-1-3-constitutional-framework.md) - [12.1.4 The Amendment Process](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-1-4-the-amendment-process.md) - [12.1.5 End of Topic Test - Nature US Constitution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-1-5-end-of-topic-test-nature-us-constitution.md) - 12.2 Principles of the US Constitution - [12.2.1 Federalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-2-1-federalism.md) - [12.2.2 Separation of Powers/Checks & Balances](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-2-2-separation-of-powerschecks-and-balances.md) - [12.2.3 Bipartisanship](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-2-3-bipartisanship.md) - [12.2.4 Limited Government](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-2-4-limited-government.md) - [12.2.5 End of Topic Test - Constitutional Principles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-2-5-end-of-topic-test-constitutional-principles.md) - 12.3 Federalism - [12.3.1 Main Characteristics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-3-1-main-characteristics.md) - [12.3.2 Federal Government and the States](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-3-2-federal-government-and-the-states.md) - [12.3.3 End of Topic Test - Federalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-3-3-end-of-topic-test-federalism.md) - 12.4 Interpretations & Debates - [12.4.1 Democracy in the Constitution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-4-1-democracy-in-the-constitution.md) - [12.4.2 Federalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-4-2-federalism.md) - [12.4.3 End of Topic Test - Debates](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-4-3-end-of-topic-test-debates.md) - [12.4.4 A-A* (AO3/4) - US Constitution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-4-4-a-a-ao34-us-constitution.md) ### 13 US Congress - 13.1 Structure of Congress - [13.1.1 Structure of Congress](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/13-1-1-structure-of-congress.md) - [13.1.2 Distribution of Powers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/13-1-2-distribution-of-powers.md) - [13.1.3 End of Topic Test - Congress Structure](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/13-1-3-end-of-topic-test-congress-structure.md) - 13.2 Functions of Congress - [13.2.1 Representation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/13-2-1-representation.md) - [13.2.2 Legislative](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/13-2-2-legislative.md) - [13.2.3 Oversight](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/13-2-3-oversight.md) - [13.2.4 End of Topic Test - Functions of Congress](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/13-2-4-end-of-topic-test-functions-of-congress.md) - 13.3 Interpretations & Debates - [13.3.1 Changing Roles & Powers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/13-3-1-changing-roles-and-powers.md) - [13.3.2 Changing Significance of Parties & of Powers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/13-3-2-changing-significance-of-parties-and-of-powers.md) - [13.3.3 End of Topic Test - Debates](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/13-3-3-end-of-topic-test-debates.md) - [13.3.4 Application Questions - US Congress](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/13-3-4-application-questions-us-congress.md) ### 14 US Presidency - 14.1 Presidential Power - [14.1.1 Formal Sources of Presidential Power](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/14-1-1-formal-sources-of-presidential-power.md) - [14.1.2 Informal Sources of Presidential Power](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/14-1-2-informal-sources-of-presidential-power.md) - [14.1.3 Powers of Persuasion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/14-1-3-powers-of-persuasion.md) - [14.1.4 End of Topic Test - Presidential Power](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/14-1-4-end-of-topic-test-presidential-power.md) - 14.2 The Presidency - [14.2.1 President Relationship with Other Institutions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/14-2-1-president-relationship-with-other-institutions.md) - [14.2.2 Limitations on Presidential Power](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/14-2-2-limitations-on-presidential-power.md) - [14.2.3 US Presidents Achieving Their Aims](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/14-2-3-us-presidents-achieving-their-aims.md) - [14.2.4 End of Topic Test - Presidency](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/14-2-4-end-of-topic-test-presidency.md) - 14.3 Interpretations & Debates of the US Presidency - [14.3.1 The Imperial Presidency](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/14-3-1-the-imperial-presidency.md) - [14.3.2 The President in Foreign Policy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/14-3-2-the-president-in-foreign-policy.md) - [14.3.3 End of Topic Test - Debates](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/14-3-3-end-of-topic-test-debates.md) - [14.3.4 A-A* (AO3/4) - US Presidency](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/14-3-4-a-a-ao34-us-presidency.md) ### 15 US Supreme Court & Civil Rights - 15.1 Nature & Role of Supreme Court - [15.1.1 Nature & Role of the Supreme Court](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-1-1-nature-and-role-of-the-supreme-court.md) - [15.1.2 End of Topic Test - Nature & Role](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-1-2-end-of-topic-test-nature-and-role.md) - 15.2 Supreme Court Appointment Process - [15.2.1 Appointment Process](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-2-1-appointment-process.md) - [15.2.2 Supreme Court Membership](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-2-2-supreme-court-membership.md) - [15.2.3 End of Topic Test - Appointments](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-2-3-end-of-topic-test-appointments.md) - 15.3 The Supreme Court & Public Policy - [15.3.1 Supreme Court & Public Policy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-3-1-supreme-court-and-public-policy.md) - [15.3.2 End of Topic Test - Public Policy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-3-2-end-of-topic-test-public-policy.md) - 15.4 Protection of Civil Liberties & Rights - [15.4.1 Protection of Civil Liberties & Rights](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-4-1-protection-of-civil-liberties-and-rights.md) - [15.4.2 Race & Rights in Contemporary US Politics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-4-2-race-and-rights-in-contemporary-us-politics.md) - [15.4.3 End of Topic Test - Rights & Liberties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-4-3-end-of-topic-test-rights-and-liberties.md) - 15.5 Debates & Interpretations of the Supreme Court - [15.5.1 Political Nature of the Supreme Court](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-5-1-political-nature-of-the-supreme-court.md) - [15.5.2 Judicial Interpretation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-5-2-judicial-interpretation.md) - [15.5.3 Supreme Court Checks & Balances](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-5-3-supreme-court-checks-and-balances.md) - [15.5.4 End of Topic Test - Debates](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-5-4-end-of-topic-test-debates.md) - [15.5.5 Application Questions - The Supreme Court](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-5-5-application-questions-the-supreme-court.md) ### 16 US Democracy & Participation - 16.1 Presidential Elections - [16.1.1 Presidential Elections](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-1-1-presidential-elections.md) - [16.1.2 Primaries](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-1-2-primaries.md) - [16.1.3 National Party Conventions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-1-3-national-party-conventions.md) - [16.1.4 End of Topic Test - Presidential Elections](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-1-4-end-of-topic-test-presidential-elections.md) - 16.2 Electoral College - [16.2.1 Electoral College System](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-2-1-electoral-college-system.md) - [16.2.2 Reforms](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-2-2-reforms.md) - [16.2.3 End of Topic Test - Electoral College](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-2-3-end-of-topic-test-electoral-college.md) - 16.3 Electoral Campaigns - [16.3.1 Issues in Elections](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-3-1-issues-in-elections.md) - [16.3.2 End of Topic Test - Campaigns](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-3-2-end-of-topic-test-campaigns.md) - 16.4 Incumbency - [16.4.1 Elections & Incumbency](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-4-1-elections-and-incumbency.md) - [16.4.2 End of Topic Test - Incumbency](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-4-2-end-of-topic-test-incumbency.md) - [16.4.3 A-A* (AO3/4) - Elections & Electoral College](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-4-3-a-a-ao34-elections-and-electoral-college.md) - 16.5 Democrats & Republicans - [16.5.1 National & State Level Organisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-5-1-national-and-state-level-organisation.md) - [16.5.2 Democratic & Republican Policies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-5-2-democratic-and-republican-policies.md) - [16.5.3 Changing Party Significance](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-5-3-changing-party-significance.md) - [16.5.4 End of Topic Test - Democrats & Republicans](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-5-4-end-of-topic-test-democrats-and-republicans.md) - 16.6 Internal Conflict & Ideology - [16.6.1 Types of Democrats](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-6-1-types-of-democrats.md) - [16.6.2 Types of Republicans](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-6-2-types-of-republicans.md) - [16.6.3 End of Topic Test - Internal Conflict](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-6-3-end-of-topic-test-internal-conflict.md) - 16.7 Support & Demographics - [16.7.1 Coalition of Supporters](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-7-1-coalition-of-supporters.md) - [16.7.2 End of Topic Test - Party Support](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-7-2-end-of-topic-test-party-support.md) - 16.8 Interest Groups - [16.8.1 Political Significance of Interest Groups](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-8-1-political-significance-of-interest-groups.md) - [16.8.2 Interest Group Influence & Impact on Democracy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-8-2-interest-group-influence-and-impact-on-democracy.md) - [16.8.3 End of Topic Test - Interest Groups](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-8-3-end-of-topic-test-interest-groups.md) - [16.8.4 Application Questions - Parties, Ideology & Groups](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-8-4-application-questions-parties-ideology-and-groups.md) ### 17 Comparing Democracies - 17.1 Theoretical Approaches - [17.1.1 Theoretical Approaches](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-1-1-theoretical-approaches.md) - [17.1.2 End of Topic Test - Approaches](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-1-2-end-of-topic-test-approaches.md) - 17.2 UK & USA Similarities & Differences - [17.2.1 Constitution: Nature](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-1-constitution-nature.md) - [17.2.2 Constitution: Provisions & Principles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-2-constitution-provisions-and-principles.md) - [17.2.3 Federal System & Devolution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-3-federal-system-and-devolution.md) - [17.2.4 Legislative: Lower Houses of Government](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-4-legislative-lower-houses-of-government.md) - [17.2.5 Legislative: Upper Houses of Government](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-5-legislative-upper-houses-of-government.md) - [17.2.6 Legislative: Powers & Functions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-6-legislative-powers-and-functions.md) - [17.2.7 Executive](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-7-executive.md) - [17.2.8 Supreme Court](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-8-supreme-court.md) - [17.2.9 Supreme Court: Judicial Independence](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-9-supreme-court-judicial-independence.md) - [17.2.10 Civil Rights](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-10-civil-rights.md) - [17.2.11 Civil Rights: Interest Groups](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-11-civil-rights-interest-groups.md) - [17.2.12 Party Systems & Parties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-12-party-systems-and-parties.md) - [17.2.13 Campaign Finance & Pressure Groups](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-13-campaign-finance-and-pressure-groups.md) - [17.2.14 End of Topic Test - Comparing UK & US](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-14-end-of-topic-test-comparing-uk-and-us.md) - [17.2.15 Application Questions - UK & USA](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-15-application-questions-uk-and-usa.md) ### 18 Feminism - 18.1 Feminism: Core Ideas & Principles - [18.1.1 Context of Feminism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-1-1-context-of-feminism.md) - [18.1.2 Sex & Gender](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-1-2-sex-and-gender.md) - [18.1.3 Patriarchy & The Personal is the Political](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-1-3-patriarchy-and-the-personal-is-the-political.md) - [18.1.4 Difference, Egalitarian & Intersectionality](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-1-4-difference-egalitarian-and-intersectionality.md) - [18.1.5 Key Themes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-1-5-key-themes.md) - [18.1.6 End of Topic Test - Core Ideas & Principles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-1-6-end-of-topic-test-core-ideas-and-principles.md) - 18.2 Different Types of Feminism - [18.2.1 The Waves of Feminism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-2-1-the-waves-of-feminism.md) - [18.2.2 Socialist & Radical Feminism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-2-2-socialist-and-radical-feminism.md) - [18.2.3 Post-Modern Feminism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-2-3-post-modern-feminism.md) - [18.2.4 End of Topic Test - Different Types of Feminism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-2-4-end-of-topic-test-different-types-of-feminism.md) - 18.3 Feminist Thinkers & Their Ideas - [18.3.1 Charlotte Gilman & Simone de Beauvoir](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-3-1-charlotte-gilman-and-simone-de-beauvoir.md) - [18.3.2 Kate Millett](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-3-2-kate-millett.md) - [18.3.3 Sheila Rowbotham & bell hooks](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-3-3-sheila-rowbotham-and-bell-hooks.md) - [18.3.4 End of Topic Test - Feminist Thinkers & Ideas](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-3-4-end-of-topic-test-feminist-thinkers-and-ideas.md) - [18.3.5 A-A* (AO3/4) - Feminism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-3-5-a-a-ao34-feminism.md) ### 19 Nationalism - 19.1 Nationalism: Core Ideas & Principles - [19.1.1 Nations & Self-Determination](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-1-1-nations-and-self-determination.md) - [19.1.2 Nation-States & Culturalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-1-2-nation-states-and-culturalism.md) - [19.1.3 Racialism & Internationalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-1-3-racialism-and-internationalism.md) - [19.1.4 Civic & Ethnic Nationalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-1-4-civic-and-ethnic-nationalism.md) - [19.1.5 Liberal & Socialist Internationalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-1-5-liberal-and-socialist-internationalism.md) - [19.1.6 Key Themes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-1-6-key-themes.md) - [19.1.7 End of Topic Test - Core Ideas & Principles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-1-7-end-of-topic-test-core-ideas-and-principles.md) - 19.2 Different Types of Nationalism - [19.2.1 Liberal & Conservative Nationalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-2-1-liberal-and-conservative-nationalism.md) - [19.2.2 Post-Colonial & Expansionist Nationalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-2-2-post-colonial-and-expansionist-nationalism.md) - [19.2.3 Progressive & Regressive Nationalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-2-3-progressive-and-regressive-nationalism.md) - [19.2.4 Inclusive & Exclusive Nationalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-2-4-inclusive-and-exclusive-nationalism.md) - [19.2.5 End of Topic Test -Different Types of Nationalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-2-5-end-of-topic-test-different-types-of-nationalism.md) - 19.3 Nationalist Thinkers & Their Ideas - [19.3.1 Jean-Jacques Rousseau & Gottfried von Herder](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-3-1-jean-jacques-rousseau-and-gottfried-von-herder.md) - [19.3.2 Giuseppe Mazzini & Charles Maurras](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-3-2-giuseppe-mazzini-and-charles-maurras.md) - [19.3.3 Marcus Garvey](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-3-3-marcus-garvey.md) - [19.3.4 End of Topic Test - Nationalist Thinkers & Ideas](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-3-4-end-of-topic-test-nationalist-thinkers-and-ideas.md) - [19.3.5 A-A* (AO3/4) - Nationalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-3-5-a-a-ao34-nationalism.md)