Source: https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-1-6-equality [Revision notes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes.md) › [A Level](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level.md) › [Political Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies.md) › [Edexcel](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel.md) › Equality # Equality Political Studies: Edexcel A Level, topic 7.1.6 ## Principle of Equality Pursuing equality is a key goal of socialism. Equality for socialists is equally distributing wealth and income in society. ### Socialists support equality ![Socialists support equality](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/physics/AQA%20New%20Modules/6.1.3/equals%20sign.jpg) - Socialists argue in favour of social equality because: - Social equality ensures fairness. - Social equality reinforces the ideas of collectivism. - Social equality ensures that basic human needs are satisfied. - Social equality can benefit all individuals in society by increasing the life expectancy, happiness levels, reducing poverty and crime. - Kate Pickett and Richard Wilkinson (2010 ‘The Spirit Level: Why Equality is Better for Everyone’) argued that societies with high inequality will experience lower living standards than those with less inequality. ### Fairness ![Fairness](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/f7988027-f437-492d-a4c5-df5b1b078cdb/arm-wrestling-fight-win-aggressive-.jpg) - Socialists argue for social equality because it ensures fairness. - Inequality is the result of the structural inequalities within a capitalist society instead of a difference in people’s ability. - Socialists believe that people are born with the ability to be equal. ### Collectivism ![Collectivism](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/e293622d-f3dc-4473-a446-59ba7772664f/adventure-hiking-helping-.jpg) - Socialists argue that social equality reinforces the ideas of collectivism and co-operation within society because humans are more likely to work for a common economic good and exist peacefully if they have similar social and economic conditions. - Socialists believe that social inequality encourages conflict between those in society. ### Human needs ![Human needs](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/afbe4fbe-315d-4bec-863a-9ba824b2b0f8/haiti-reaching-helping-hand-aid-chairty-.jpg) - Equality ensures that basic human needs are satisfied through an equal distribution of wealth. - Basic human needs cannot be achieved through a free-market economy where industry is driven by profit and so not able to fairly allocate wealth to all of society. - From a socialist perspective, only the state and its ability to redistribute wealth will ensure everyone is able to have their basic needs satisfied. ### Against social equality ![Against social equality](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/17112315-22f3-47dc-abca-914628dba306/cat-dream-sleep-rest-lazy-.jpg) - Social equality can lower the ambition of people by lessening the material incentives for hard work, which can result in economic underperformance. - Social equality is unjust because treating all individuals as the same regardless of their performance fails to reward people based on their ability. - Social equality limits the level of diversity in society. - Social equality restricts individual liberties because the way social equality would be achieved is through increased state intervention. ## Debates About the Nature of Equality An important debate within socialism is the extent to which equality socially and economically can and should be achieved. There are four arguments: absolute equality, equality of opportunity, outcome and welfare. ### Revolutionary socialists ![Revolutionary socialists](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/2dc36b3a-f1ff-4ec3-bea7-3ab0c532ccea/revolution-rebellion-fist-.jpg) - Revolutionary socialists believe there should be complete equality for all in society both in material benefits and opportunities in life. - Revolutionary socialists believe equality can only be achieved through the state controlling how goods and services are distributed, removing private property and having common ownership of all means of production. ### Social democrats ![Social democrats](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-07/22c0ba7c-826d-44b2-abe9-dea07dae9e6e/poverty-wallet.jpg) - Social democrats aim to remove absolute poverty and achieve equality in society through welfare measures, government spending and a progressive tax system. - If poverty can be abolished then a certain amount of inequality can be accepted. - To achieve the abolition of poverty, the state’s role is to adjust distribution so that differences in wealth and life opportunities are reduced. - Social democrats ultimately look to reform capitalism as opposed to abolishing it. ### Equality of outcome ![Equality of outcome](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-03/387f462b-890b-451b-8cdd-4c7c9aad8d7c/shutterstock_228878062.jpg) - Equality of outcome is when rewards are made more equal regardless of the contribution of an individual. Whilst some inequality will exist, the inequality won't be as significant as in a free market system. - Fundamentalist socialists support equality of outcome as a means of removing the influence of the free market, but other socialists, such as Third Way and social democrats, see this as artificial social and economic ‘levelling’. ### Absolute equality ![Absolute equality](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-03/af8f57d9-420b-46e2-9141-4cfcdd986e49/shutterstock_709217137.jpg) - Absolute equality is the idea that all in society should gain the exact same rewards as long as they contribute to society. Each individual over time should make broadly the same level of contribution. - Marxists support this approach but social democrats and Third Way socialists see this form of equality as impractical to achieve. ### Equality of welfare ![Equality of welfare](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/ceef0317-0275-4ff2-9074-a6e03a3199b2/unequal-balance-.jpg) - Equality of welfare is the idea that while society will inevitably be unequal, all individuals have the right to equal minimum living standards and welfare provision which are provided by the state. - Social democrats and Third Way socialists support this approach towards equality because it looks after the poorest in society, but Marxists reject it because it does not aim to remove capitalism. ### Equality of opportunity ![Equality of opportunity](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/biology/2.4.1%20-%20Heart%20diseases/door-pushing-min.jpg) - Equality of opportunity is the idea that everyone in society should be given an equal chance to make the most of their ability. - Equality of opportunity is a system where everyone has the same opportunities with no barriers to prevent people progressing who work hard and have an ability. - Social democrats and Third Way socialists support this approach to equality but Marxists oppose it because it does not aim to remove capitalism. ## Test yourself on Equality - Which of these is NOT an argument in support of social equality? - Which of these is NOT a kind of equality that some kinds of socialists argue for? [Practise this topic for free](https://app.senecalearning.com/classroom/course/187b17d0-dbde-4633-8fc0-0a556c3291b1/section/e032e503-dd89-410e-8468-20be194c8416/session) - Previous topic: [7.1.5 Common Humanity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-1-5-common-humanity.md) - Next topic: [7.1.7 Social Class & Workers' Control](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-1-7-social-class-and-workers-control.md) ## Political Studies: Edexcel A Level contents ### 1 Democracy & Participation - 1.1 Representative & Direct Democracy - [1.1.1 Direct Democracy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-1-1-direct-democracy.md) - [1.1.2 Pros & Cons of Direct Democracy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-1-2-pros-and-cons-of-direct-democracy.md) - [1.1.3 Representative Democracy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-1-3-representative-democracy.md) - [1.1.4 Pros & Cons of Representative Democracy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-1-4-pros-and-cons-of-representative-democracy.md) - [1.1.5 Comparing Types of Democracy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-1-5-comparing-types-of-democracy.md) - [1.1.6 Case for Democratic Reform](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-1-6-case-for-democratic-reform.md) - [1.1.7 End of Topic Test - Types of Democracy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-1-7-end-of-topic-test-types-of-democracy.md) - [1.1.8 Top Grade AO3/4 - Types of Democracy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-1-8-top-grade-ao34-types-of-democracy.md) - 1.2 Wider Franchise & Suffrage - [1.2.1 History of the UK Franchise](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-2-1-history-of-the-uk-franchise.md) - [1.2.2 Campaigns for Suffrage](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-2-2-campaigns-for-suffrage.md) - [1.2.3 End of Topic Test - Franchise & Suffrage](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-2-3-end-of-topic-test-franchise-and-suffrage.md) - 1.3 Pressure Groups & Other Influences - [1.3.1 Types of Pressure Group](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-3-1-types-of-pressure-group.md) - [1.3.2 Functions of Pressure Groups](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-3-2-functions-of-pressure-groups.md) - [1.3.3 How Pressure Groups Influence](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-3-3-how-pressure-groups-influence.md) - [1.3.4 Case-Study Examples](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-3-4-case-study-examples.md) - [1.3.5 Other Collective Orgs & Groups](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-3-5-other-collective-orgs-and-groups.md) - [1.3.6 End of Topic Test - Pressure Groups & Influences](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-3-6-end-of-topic-test-pressure-groups-and-influences.md) - [1.3.7 Application Questions - Pressure Groups](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-3-7-application-questions-pressure-groups.md) - 1.4 Rights in Context - [1.4.1 Development of Rights in the UK](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-4-1-development-of-rights-in-the-uk.md) - [1.4.2 The UK's Rights-Based Culture](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-4-2-the-uks-rights-based-culture.md) - [1.4.3 End of Topic Test - Rights in Context](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/1-4-3-end-of-topic-test-rights-in-context.md) ### 2 Political Parties - 2.1 How Political Parties Work - [2.1.1 Functions & Features of UK Political Parties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-1-1-functions-and-features-of-uk-political-parties.md) - [2.1.2 Funding of UK Political Parties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-1-2-funding-of-uk-political-parties.md) - [2.1.3 UK Funding Reform](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-1-3-uk-funding-reform.md) - [2.1.4 End of Topic Test - Political Parties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-1-4-end-of-topic-test-political-parties.md) - [2.1.5 Top Grade AO3/4 - Political Parties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-1-5-top-grade-ao34-political-parties.md) - 2.2 Established Political Parties - [2.2.1 The Conservative Party: History](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-2-1-the-conservative-party-history.md) - [2.2.2 The Conservative Party: Recent Leaders](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-2-2-the-conservative-party-recent-leaders.md) - [2.2.3 The Labour Party](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-2-3-the-labour-party.md) - [2.2.4 The Liberal Democrat Party](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-2-4-the-liberal-democrat-party.md) - [2.2.5 Ideas & Policies of UK Parties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-2-5-ideas-and-policies-of-uk-parties.md) - [2.2.6 End of Topic Test - Established Parties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-2-6-end-of-topic-test-established-parties.md) - [2.2.7 Application Questions - Established Parties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-2-7-application-questions-established-parties.md) - 2.3 Emerging & Minor Political Parties - [2.3.1 Minority Parties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-3-1-minority-parties.md) - [2.3.2 Minority Parties Case Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-3-2-minority-parties-case-studies.md) - [2.3.3 End of Topic Test - Minor Parties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-3-3-end-of-topic-test-minor-parties.md) - 2.4 UK Political Parties in Context - [2.4.1 Different Party Systems](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-4-1-different-party-systems.md) - [2.4.2 Political Spectrum](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-4-2-political-spectrum.md) - [2.4.3 Factors Affecting Party Success](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-4-3-factors-affecting-party-success.md) - [2.4.4 End of Topic Test - Parties in Context](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-4-4-end-of-topic-test-parties-in-context.md) - [2.4.5 Application Questions - Parties in Context](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/2-4-5-application-questions-parties-in-context.md) ### 3 Electoral Systems - 3.1 Different Electoral Systems - [3.1.1 FPTP & STV](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/3-1-1-fptp-and-stv.md) - [3.1.2 AMS & SV](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/3-1-2-ams-and-sv.md) - [3.1.3 End of Topic Test - Electoral Systems](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/3-1-3-end-of-topic-test-electoral-systems.md) - [3.1.4 Top Grade AO3/4 - Electoral Systems](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/3-1-4-top-grade-ao34-electoral-systems.md) - 3.2 Referendums & How They Are Used - [3.2.1 Case For & Against Referendums](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/3-2-1-case-for-and-against-referendums.md) - [3.2.2 End of Topic Test - Referendums](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/3-2-2-end-of-topic-test-referendums.md) - [3.2.3 A-A* (AO3/4) - Referendums](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/3-2-3-a-a-ao34-referendums.md) - 3.3 Electoral System Analysis - [3.3.1 Electoral System Analysis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/3-3-1-electoral-system-analysis.md) - [3.3.2 End of Topic Test - System Analysis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/3-3-2-end-of-topic-test-system-analysis.md) - [3.3.3 A-A* (AO3/4) - Electoral System Analysis](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/3-3-3-a-a-ao34-electoral-system-analysis.md) ### 4 Voting Behaviour & the Media - 4.1 General Election Case Studies - [4.1.1 Case Studies of Elections](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/4-1-1-case-studies-of-elections.md) - [4.1.2 Factors Influencing Voting in Elections](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/4-1-2-factors-influencing-voting-in-elections.md) - [4.1.3 End of Topic Test - Case Studies & Factors](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/4-1-3-end-of-topic-test-case-studies-and-factors.md) - [4.1.4 A-A* (AO3/4) - Case Studies & Voting](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/4-1-4-a-a-ao34-case-studies-and-voting.md) - 4.2 Media Influence - [4.2.1 Media Influence](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/4-2-1-media-influence.md) - [4.2.2 End of Topic Test - Media Influence](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/4-2-2-end-of-topic-test-media-influence.md) ### 5 Conservatism - 5.1 Conservatism: Core Ideas & Principles - [5.1.1 Pragmatism & Tradition](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-1-1-pragmatism-and-tradition.md) - [5.1.2 Human Imperfection & Organic Society/State](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-1-2-human-imperfection-and-organic-societystate.md) - [5.1.3 Authority & Hierarchy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-1-3-authority-and-hierarchy.md) - [5.1.4 Paternalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-1-4-paternalism.md) - [5.1.5 Empiricism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-1-5-empiricism.md) - [5.1.6 Anti-Permissiveness](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-1-6-anti-permissiveness.md) - [5.1.7 Radical Conservative Ideas](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-1-7-radical-conservative-ideas.md) - [5.1.8 End of Topic Test - Core Conservatism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-1-8-end-of-topic-test-core-conservatism.md) - 5.2 Conservatism: Differing Views & Tensions - [5.2.1 Traditional Conservatism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-2-1-traditional-conservatism.md) - [5.2.2 One-Nation Conservatism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-2-2-one-nation-conservatism.md) - [5.2.3 New Right Conservatism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-2-3-new-right-conservatism.md) - [5.2.4 End of Topic Test - Different Views](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-2-4-end-of-topic-test-different-views.md) - 5.3 Conservative Thinkers & Ideas - [5.3.1 Thomas Hobbes & Edmund Burke](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-3-1-thomas-hobbes-and-edmund-burke.md) - [5.3.2 Michael Oakeshott & Ayn Rand](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-3-2-michael-oakeshott-and-ayn-rand.md) - [5.3.3 Robert Nozick](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-3-3-robert-nozick.md) - [5.3.4 End of Topic Test - Conservative Thinkers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-3-4-end-of-topic-test-conservative-thinkers.md) - [5.3.5 A-A* (AO3/4) - Conservatism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/5-3-5-a-a-ao34-conservatism.md) ### 6 Liberalism - 6.1 Liberalism: Core Ideas & Principles - [6.1.1 Individualism & Freedom/Liberty](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-1-1-individualism-and-freedomliberty.md) - [6.1.2 The State & Rationalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-1-2-the-state-and-rationalism.md) - [6.1.3 Equality & Social Justice](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-1-3-equality-and-social-justice.md) - [6.1.4 Liberal Democracy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-1-4-liberal-democracy.md) - [6.1.5 Other Important Liberal Ideas](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-1-5-other-important-liberal-ideas.md) - [6.1.6 End of Topic Test - Liberalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-1-6-end-of-topic-test-liberalism.md) - 6.2 Differing Views And Tensions Within Liberalism - [6.2.1 Classical Liberalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-2-1-classical-liberalism.md) - [6.2.2 Modern Liberalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-2-2-modern-liberalism.md) - [6.2.3 End of Topic Test - Tensions & Views](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-2-3-end-of-topic-test-tensions-and-views.md) - 6.3 Liberal Thinkers & Ideas - [6.3.1 John Locke & Mary Wollstonecraft](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-3-1-john-locke-and-mary-wollstonecraft.md) - [6.3.2 John Stuart Mill & John Rawls](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-3-2-john-stuart-mill-and-john-rawls.md) - [6.3.3 Betty Friedan](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-3-3-betty-friedan.md) - [6.3.4 End of Topic Test - Thinkers & Ideas](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-3-4-end-of-topic-test-thinkers-and-ideas.md) - [6.3.5 A-A* - Liberalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/6-3-5-a-a-liberalism.md) ### 7 Socialism - 7.1 Socialism: Core Ideas & Principles - [7.1.1 Fraternity & Co-operation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-1-1-fraternity-and-co-operation.md) - [7.1.2 Capitalism & Common Ownership](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-1-2-capitalism-and-common-ownership.md) - [7.1.3 Communism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-1-3-communism.md) - [7.1.4 Collectivism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-1-4-collectivism.md) - [7.1.5 Common Humanity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-1-5-common-humanity.md) - [7.1.6 Equality](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-1-6-equality.md) - [7.1.7 Social Class & Workers' Control](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-1-7-social-class-and-workers-control.md) - [7.1.8 End of Topic Test - Socialism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-1-8-end-of-topic-test-socialism.md) - 7.2 Differing Views And Tensions Within Socialism - [7.2.1 Differing Views And Tensions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-2-1-differing-views-and-tensions.md) - [7.2.2 End of Topic Test - Views & Tensions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-2-2-end-of-topic-test-views-and-tensions.md) - 7.3 Socialist Thinkers and Their Ideas - [7.3.1 Socialist Thinkers: Marx & Engels](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-3-1-socialist-thinkers-marx-and-engels.md) - [7.3.2 Socialist Thinkers: Webb & Luxemburg](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-3-2-socialist-thinkers-webb-and-luxemburg.md) - [7.3.3 Socialist Thinkers: Crosland and Giddens](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-3-3-socialist-thinkers-crosland-and-giddens.md) - [7.3.4 End of Topic Test - Thinkers & Ideas](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-3-4-end-of-topic-test-thinkers-and-ideas.md) - [7.3.5 A-A* (AO3/4) - Socialism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/7-3-5-a-a-ao34-socialism.md) ### 8 The UK Constitution - 8.1 Nature & Sources of UK Constitution - [8.1.1 Development of the UK Constitution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-1-1-development-of-the-uk-constitution.md) - [8.1.2 Nature of the UK Constitution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-1-2-nature-of-the-uk-constitution.md) - [8.1.3 Sources of the UK Constitution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-1-3-sources-of-the-uk-constitution.md) - [8.1.4 End of Topic Test - Nature & Sources](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-1-4-end-of-topic-test-nature-and-sources.md) - 8.2 Constitutional Change since 1997 - [8.2.1 Constitutional Reform since 1997 (1)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-2-1-constitutional-reform-since-1997-1.md) - [8.2.2 Constitutional Reform since 1997 (2)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-2-2-constitutional-reform-since-1997-2.md) - [8.2.3 Constitutional Reform 2010-15 & Reforms Since 2015](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-2-3-constitutional-reform-2010-15-and-reforms-since-2015.md) - [8.2.4 End of Topic Test - Reform](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-2-4-end-of-topic-test-reform.md) - [8.2.5 Application Questions - Reform](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-2-5-application-questions-reform.md) - 8.3 Role & Powers of Devolved UK Bodies - [8.3.1 Devolution in England & Scotland](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-3-1-devolution-in-england-and-scotland.md) - [8.3.2 Devolution in Wales & Northern Ireland](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-3-2-devolution-in-wales-and-northern-ireland.md) - [8.3.3 End of Topic Test - Devolution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-3-3-end-of-topic-test-devolution.md) - 8.4 Debates on Constitutional Reform - [8.4.1 Constitutional Reform & Devolution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-4-1-constitutional-reform-and-devolution.md) - [8.4.2 Should the Constitution Be Codified?](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-4-2-should-the-constitution-be-codified.md) - [8.4.3 End of Topic Test - Reform Debates](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-4-3-end-of-topic-test-reform-debates.md) - [8.4.4 Application Questions - Codification & Devolution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/8-4-4-application-questions-codification-and-devolution.md) ### 9 The UK Parliament - 9.1 Houses of Parliament - [9.1.1 Houses of Parliament](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-1-1-houses-of-parliament.md) - [9.1.2 Functions of the House of Commons](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-1-2-functions-of-the-house-of-commons.md) - [9.1.3 Functions of the House of Lords](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-1-3-functions-of-the-house-of-lords.md) - [9.1.4 End of Topic Test - Parliament](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-1-4-end-of-topic-test-parliament.md) - [9.1.5 Top Grade AO3/4 - Parliament](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-1-5-top-grade-ao34-parliament.md) - 9.2 Comparative Powers - [9.2.1 Comparative Powers of the Houses](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-2-1-comparative-powers-of-the-houses.md) - [9.2.2 End of Topic Test - Comparative Powers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-2-2-end-of-topic-test-comparative-powers.md) - 9.3 Legislative Process - [9.3.1 Legislative Stages](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-3-1-legislative-stages.md) - [9.3.2 Law-Making in the two Houses](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-3-2-law-making-in-the-two-houses.md) - [9.3.3 End of Topic Test - Legislative Process](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-3-3-end-of-topic-test-legislative-process.md) - 9.4 Parliament & Executive Interactions - [9.4.1 Backbenchers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-4-1-backbenchers.md) - [9.4.2 Select Committees](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-4-2-select-committees.md) - [9.4.3 The Opposition](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-4-3-the-opposition.md) - [9.4.4 Ministerial Question Time](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-4-4-ministerial-question-time.md) - [9.4.5 End of Topic Test - Parliament & Executive](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-4-5-end-of-topic-test-parliament-and-executive.md) - [9.4.6 Application Questions - Parliament & Executive](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/9-4-6-application-questions-parliament-and-executive.md) ### 10 The Prime Minister & the Executive - 10.1 The Executive - [10.1.1 Structure of the Executive](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-1-1-structure-of-the-executive.md) - [10.1.2 Roles of the Executive](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-1-2-roles-of-the-executive.md) - [10.1.3 Powers of the Executive](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-1-3-powers-of-the-executive.md) - [10.1.4 End of Topic Test - PM & Executive](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-1-4-end-of-topic-test-pm-and-executive.md) - 10.2 Ministerial Responsibility - [10.2.1 Individual Ministerial Responsibility](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-2-1-individual-ministerial-responsibility.md) - [10.2.2 Collective Ministerial Responsibility](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-2-2-collective-ministerial-responsibility.md) - [10.2.3 End of Topic Test - Ministerial Responsibility](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-2-3-end-of-topic-test-ministerial-responsibility.md) - 10.3 Prime Minister & the Cabinet - [10.3.1 Role of the Prime Minister](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-3-1-role-of-the-prime-minister.md) - [10.3.2 Prime Minister's Powers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-3-2-prime-ministers-powers.md) - [10.3.3 Limits on the Prime Minister's Powers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-3-3-limits-on-the-prime-ministers-powers.md) - [10.3.4 Role of the Cabinet](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-3-4-role-of-the-cabinet.md) - [10.3.5 Prime Minister & Cabinet: Relations](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-3-5-prime-minister-and-cabinet-relations.md) - [10.3.6 Prime Minister & Cabinet: Balance of Power](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-3-6-prime-minister-and-cabinet-balance-of-power.md) - [10.3.7 Prime Minister & Cabinet: Case Studies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-3-7-prime-minister-and-cabinet-case-studies.md) - [10.3.8 End of Topic Test - PM & Cabinet](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-3-8-end-of-topic-test-pm-and-cabinet.md) - [10.3.9 Top Grade AO3/4 - PM & Cabinet](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/10-3-9-top-grade-ao34-pm-and-cabinet.md) ### 11 Relationships Between Government Branches - 11.1 The Supreme Court - [11.1.1 Role & Composition](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-1-1-role-and-composition.md) - [11.1.2 Principles & Influence of the Supreme Court](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-1-2-principles-and-influence-of-the-supreme-court.md) - [11.1.3 End of Topic Test - Supreme Court](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-1-3-end-of-topic-test-supreme-court.md) - 11.2 Parliament & Executive Relations - [11.2.1 Parliament & Executive: Questions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-2-1-parliament-and-executive-questions.md) - [11.2.2 Parliament & Executive: Committees](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-2-2-parliament-and-executive-committees.md) - [11.2.3 Parliament & Executive: Voting](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-2-3-parliament-and-executive-voting.md) - [11.2.4 Executive Dominance Over Parliament](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-2-4-executive-dominance-over-parliament.md) - [11.2.5 Balance of Power](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-2-5-balance-of-power.md) - [11.2.6 End of Topic Test - Parliament & Executive](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-2-6-end-of-topic-test-parliament-and-executive.md) - [11.2.7 A-A* (AO3/4) - Relationships Between Government](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-2-7-a-a-ao34-relationships-between-government.md) - 11.3 The European Union & the UK - [11.3.1 Aims & Policymaking of the European Union](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-3-1-aims-and-policymaking-of-the-european-union.md) - [11.3.2 End of Topic Test - EU & UK](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-3-2-end-of-topic-test-eu-and-uk.md) - 11.4 Sovereignty in the UK Political System - [11.4.1 Sovereignty in the UK Political System](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-4-1-sovereignty-in-the-uk-political-system.md) - [11.4.2 End of Topic Test - Sovereignty](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/11-4-2-end-of-topic-test-sovereignty.md) ### 12 US Constitution & Federalism - 12.1 Nature of the US Constitution - [12.1.1 Nature of the US Constitution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-1-1-nature-of-the-us-constitution.md) - [12.1.2 Nature: Positives & Negatives](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-1-2-nature-positives-and-negatives.md) - [12.1.3 Constitutional Framework](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-1-3-constitutional-framework.md) - [12.1.4 The Amendment Process](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-1-4-the-amendment-process.md) - [12.1.5 End of Topic Test - Nature US Constitution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-1-5-end-of-topic-test-nature-us-constitution.md) - 12.2 Principles of the US Constitution - [12.2.1 Federalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-2-1-federalism.md) - [12.2.2 Separation of Powers/Checks & Balances](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-2-2-separation-of-powerschecks-and-balances.md) - [12.2.3 Bipartisanship](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-2-3-bipartisanship.md) - [12.2.4 Limited Government](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-2-4-limited-government.md) - [12.2.5 End of Topic Test - Constitutional Principles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-2-5-end-of-topic-test-constitutional-principles.md) - 12.3 Federalism - [12.3.1 Main Characteristics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-3-1-main-characteristics.md) - [12.3.2 Federal Government and the States](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-3-2-federal-government-and-the-states.md) - [12.3.3 End of Topic Test - Federalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-3-3-end-of-topic-test-federalism.md) - 12.4 Interpretations & Debates - [12.4.1 Democracy in the Constitution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-4-1-democracy-in-the-constitution.md) - [12.4.2 Federalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-4-2-federalism.md) - [12.4.3 End of Topic Test - Debates](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-4-3-end-of-topic-test-debates.md) - [12.4.4 A-A* (AO3/4) - US Constitution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/12-4-4-a-a-ao34-us-constitution.md) ### 13 US Congress - 13.1 Structure of Congress - [13.1.1 Structure of Congress](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/13-1-1-structure-of-congress.md) - [13.1.2 Distribution of Powers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/13-1-2-distribution-of-powers.md) - [13.1.3 End of Topic Test - Congress Structure](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/13-1-3-end-of-topic-test-congress-structure.md) - 13.2 Functions of Congress - [13.2.1 Representation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/13-2-1-representation.md) - [13.2.2 Legislative](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/13-2-2-legislative.md) - [13.2.3 Oversight](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/13-2-3-oversight.md) - [13.2.4 End of Topic Test - Functions of Congress](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/13-2-4-end-of-topic-test-functions-of-congress.md) - 13.3 Interpretations & Debates - [13.3.1 Changing Roles & Powers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/13-3-1-changing-roles-and-powers.md) - [13.3.2 Changing Significance of Parties & of Powers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/13-3-2-changing-significance-of-parties-and-of-powers.md) - [13.3.3 End of Topic Test - Debates](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/13-3-3-end-of-topic-test-debates.md) - [13.3.4 Application Questions - US Congress](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/13-3-4-application-questions-us-congress.md) ### 14 US Presidency - 14.1 Presidential Power - [14.1.1 Formal Sources of Presidential Power](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/14-1-1-formal-sources-of-presidential-power.md) - [14.1.2 Informal Sources of Presidential Power](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/14-1-2-informal-sources-of-presidential-power.md) - [14.1.3 Powers of Persuasion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/14-1-3-powers-of-persuasion.md) - [14.1.4 End of Topic Test - Presidential Power](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/14-1-4-end-of-topic-test-presidential-power.md) - 14.2 The Presidency - [14.2.1 President Relationship with Other Institutions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/14-2-1-president-relationship-with-other-institutions.md) - [14.2.2 Limitations on Presidential Power](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/14-2-2-limitations-on-presidential-power.md) - [14.2.3 US Presidents Achieving Their Aims](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/14-2-3-us-presidents-achieving-their-aims.md) - [14.2.4 End of Topic Test - Presidency](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/14-2-4-end-of-topic-test-presidency.md) - 14.3 Interpretations & Debates of the US Presidency - [14.3.1 The Imperial Presidency](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/14-3-1-the-imperial-presidency.md) - [14.3.2 The President in Foreign Policy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/14-3-2-the-president-in-foreign-policy.md) - [14.3.3 End of Topic Test - Debates](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/14-3-3-end-of-topic-test-debates.md) - [14.3.4 A-A* (AO3/4) - US Presidency](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/14-3-4-a-a-ao34-us-presidency.md) ### 15 US Supreme Court & Civil Rights - 15.1 Nature & Role of Supreme Court - [15.1.1 Nature & Role of the Supreme Court](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-1-1-nature-and-role-of-the-supreme-court.md) - [15.1.2 End of Topic Test - Nature & Role](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-1-2-end-of-topic-test-nature-and-role.md) - 15.2 Supreme Court Appointment Process - [15.2.1 Appointment Process](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-2-1-appointment-process.md) - [15.2.2 Supreme Court Membership](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-2-2-supreme-court-membership.md) - [15.2.3 End of Topic Test - Appointments](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-2-3-end-of-topic-test-appointments.md) - 15.3 The Supreme Court & Public Policy - [15.3.1 Supreme Court & Public Policy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-3-1-supreme-court-and-public-policy.md) - [15.3.2 End of Topic Test - Public Policy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-3-2-end-of-topic-test-public-policy.md) - 15.4 Protection of Civil Liberties & Rights - [15.4.1 Protection of Civil Liberties & Rights](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-4-1-protection-of-civil-liberties-and-rights.md) - [15.4.2 Race & Rights in Contemporary US Politics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-4-2-race-and-rights-in-contemporary-us-politics.md) - [15.4.3 End of Topic Test - Rights & Liberties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-4-3-end-of-topic-test-rights-and-liberties.md) - 15.5 Debates & Interpretations of the Supreme Court - [15.5.1 Political Nature of the Supreme Court](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-5-1-political-nature-of-the-supreme-court.md) - [15.5.2 Judicial Interpretation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-5-2-judicial-interpretation.md) - [15.5.3 Supreme Court Checks & Balances](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-5-3-supreme-court-checks-and-balances.md) - [15.5.4 End of Topic Test - Debates](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-5-4-end-of-topic-test-debates.md) - [15.5.5 Application Questions - The Supreme Court](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/15-5-5-application-questions-the-supreme-court.md) ### 16 US Democracy & Participation - 16.1 Presidential Elections - [16.1.1 Presidential Elections](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-1-1-presidential-elections.md) - [16.1.2 Primaries](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-1-2-primaries.md) - [16.1.3 National Party Conventions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-1-3-national-party-conventions.md) - [16.1.4 End of Topic Test - Presidential Elections](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-1-4-end-of-topic-test-presidential-elections.md) - 16.2 Electoral College - [16.2.1 Electoral College System](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-2-1-electoral-college-system.md) - [16.2.2 Reforms](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-2-2-reforms.md) - [16.2.3 End of Topic Test - Electoral College](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-2-3-end-of-topic-test-electoral-college.md) - 16.3 Electoral Campaigns - [16.3.1 Issues in Elections](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-3-1-issues-in-elections.md) - [16.3.2 End of Topic Test - Campaigns](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-3-2-end-of-topic-test-campaigns.md) - 16.4 Incumbency - [16.4.1 Elections & Incumbency](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-4-1-elections-and-incumbency.md) - [16.4.2 End of Topic Test - Incumbency](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-4-2-end-of-topic-test-incumbency.md) - [16.4.3 A-A* (AO3/4) - Elections & Electoral College](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-4-3-a-a-ao34-elections-and-electoral-college.md) - 16.5 Democrats & Republicans - [16.5.1 National & State Level Organisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-5-1-national-and-state-level-organisation.md) - [16.5.2 Democratic & Republican Policies](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-5-2-democratic-and-republican-policies.md) - [16.5.3 Changing Party Significance](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-5-3-changing-party-significance.md) - [16.5.4 End of Topic Test - Democrats & Republicans](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-5-4-end-of-topic-test-democrats-and-republicans.md) - 16.6 Internal Conflict & Ideology - [16.6.1 Types of Democrats](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-6-1-types-of-democrats.md) - [16.6.2 Types of Republicans](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-6-2-types-of-republicans.md) - [16.6.3 End of Topic Test - Internal Conflict](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-6-3-end-of-topic-test-internal-conflict.md) - 16.7 Support & Demographics - [16.7.1 Coalition of Supporters](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-7-1-coalition-of-supporters.md) - [16.7.2 End of Topic Test - Party Support](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-7-2-end-of-topic-test-party-support.md) - 16.8 Interest Groups - [16.8.1 Political Significance of Interest Groups](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-8-1-political-significance-of-interest-groups.md) - [16.8.2 Interest Group Influence & Impact on Democracy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-8-2-interest-group-influence-and-impact-on-democracy.md) - [16.8.3 End of Topic Test - Interest Groups](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-8-3-end-of-topic-test-interest-groups.md) - [16.8.4 Application Questions - Parties, Ideology & Groups](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/16-8-4-application-questions-parties-ideology-and-groups.md) ### 17 Comparing Democracies - 17.1 Theoretical Approaches - [17.1.1 Theoretical Approaches](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-1-1-theoretical-approaches.md) - [17.1.2 End of Topic Test - Approaches](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-1-2-end-of-topic-test-approaches.md) - 17.2 UK & USA Similarities & Differences - [17.2.1 Constitution: Nature](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-1-constitution-nature.md) - [17.2.2 Constitution: Provisions & Principles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-2-constitution-provisions-and-principles.md) - [17.2.3 Federal System & Devolution](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-3-federal-system-and-devolution.md) - [17.2.4 Legislative: Lower Houses of Government](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-4-legislative-lower-houses-of-government.md) - [17.2.5 Legislative: Upper Houses of Government](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-5-legislative-upper-houses-of-government.md) - [17.2.6 Legislative: Powers & Functions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-6-legislative-powers-and-functions.md) - [17.2.7 Executive](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-7-executive.md) - [17.2.8 Supreme Court](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-8-supreme-court.md) - [17.2.9 Supreme Court: Judicial Independence](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-9-supreme-court-judicial-independence.md) - [17.2.10 Civil Rights](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-10-civil-rights.md) - [17.2.11 Civil Rights: Interest Groups](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-11-civil-rights-interest-groups.md) - [17.2.12 Party Systems & Parties](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-12-party-systems-and-parties.md) - [17.2.13 Campaign Finance & Pressure Groups](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-13-campaign-finance-and-pressure-groups.md) - [17.2.14 End of Topic Test - Comparing UK & US](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-14-end-of-topic-test-comparing-uk-and-us.md) - [17.2.15 Application Questions - UK & USA](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/17-2-15-application-questions-uk-and-usa.md) ### 18 Feminism - 18.1 Feminism: Core Ideas & Principles - [18.1.1 Context of Feminism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-1-1-context-of-feminism.md) - [18.1.2 Sex & Gender](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-1-2-sex-and-gender.md) - [18.1.3 Patriarchy & The Personal is the Political](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-1-3-patriarchy-and-the-personal-is-the-political.md) - [18.1.4 Difference, Egalitarian & Intersectionality](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-1-4-difference-egalitarian-and-intersectionality.md) - [18.1.5 Key Themes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-1-5-key-themes.md) - [18.1.6 End of Topic Test - Core Ideas & Principles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-1-6-end-of-topic-test-core-ideas-and-principles.md) - 18.2 Different Types of Feminism - [18.2.1 The Waves of Feminism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-2-1-the-waves-of-feminism.md) - [18.2.2 Socialist & Radical Feminism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-2-2-socialist-and-radical-feminism.md) - [18.2.3 Post-Modern Feminism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-2-3-post-modern-feminism.md) - [18.2.4 End of Topic Test - Different Types of Feminism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-2-4-end-of-topic-test-different-types-of-feminism.md) - 18.3 Feminist Thinkers & Their Ideas - [18.3.1 Charlotte Gilman & Simone de Beauvoir](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-3-1-charlotte-gilman-and-simone-de-beauvoir.md) - [18.3.2 Kate Millett](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-3-2-kate-millett.md) - [18.3.3 Sheila Rowbotham & bell hooks](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-3-3-sheila-rowbotham-and-bell-hooks.md) - [18.3.4 End of Topic Test - Feminist Thinkers & Ideas](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-3-4-end-of-topic-test-feminist-thinkers-and-ideas.md) - [18.3.5 A-A* (AO3/4) - Feminism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/18-3-5-a-a-ao34-feminism.md) ### 19 Nationalism - 19.1 Nationalism: Core Ideas & Principles - [19.1.1 Nations & Self-Determination](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-1-1-nations-and-self-determination.md) - [19.1.2 Nation-States & Culturalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-1-2-nation-states-and-culturalism.md) - [19.1.3 Racialism & Internationalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-1-3-racialism-and-internationalism.md) - [19.1.4 Civic & Ethnic Nationalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-1-4-civic-and-ethnic-nationalism.md) - [19.1.5 Liberal & Socialist Internationalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-1-5-liberal-and-socialist-internationalism.md) - [19.1.6 Key Themes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-1-6-key-themes.md) - [19.1.7 End of Topic Test - Core Ideas & Principles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-1-7-end-of-topic-test-core-ideas-and-principles.md) - 19.2 Different Types of Nationalism - [19.2.1 Liberal & Conservative Nationalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-2-1-liberal-and-conservative-nationalism.md) - [19.2.2 Post-Colonial & Expansionist Nationalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-2-2-post-colonial-and-expansionist-nationalism.md) - [19.2.3 Progressive & Regressive Nationalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-2-3-progressive-and-regressive-nationalism.md) - [19.2.4 Inclusive & Exclusive Nationalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-2-4-inclusive-and-exclusive-nationalism.md) - [19.2.5 End of Topic Test -Different Types of Nationalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-2-5-end-of-topic-test-different-types-of-nationalism.md) - 19.3 Nationalist Thinkers & Their Ideas - [19.3.1 Jean-Jacques Rousseau & Gottfried von Herder](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-3-1-jean-jacques-rousseau-and-gottfried-von-herder.md) - [19.3.2 Giuseppe Mazzini & Charles Maurras](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-3-2-giuseppe-mazzini-and-charles-maurras.md) - [19.3.3 Marcus Garvey](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-3-3-marcus-garvey.md) - [19.3.4 End of Topic Test - Nationalist Thinkers & Ideas](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-3-4-end-of-topic-test-nationalist-thinkers-and-ideas.md) - [19.3.5 A-A* (AO3/4) - Nationalism](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/political-studies/edexcel/19-3-5-a-a-ao34-nationalism.md)