Source: https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-2-5-boyles-law-and-charles-law

[Revision notes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes.md) › [A Level](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level.md) › [Physics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics.md) › [AQA](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa.md) › Boyle's Law & Charles' Law

# Boyle's Law & Charles' Law

Physics: AQA A Level, topic 6.2.5

## Investigation of Boyle's Law

Boyle’s Law describes the relationship between the pressure and volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature.

### Manometer method

![Manometer method](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-10/96cbcd3d-37a0-4b87-a0cf-9757c40c7800/manometer.jpg)

- Use a pump to change the air pressure on one side of the manometer.
- Use a pressure gauge on the pump side to measure air pressure, which is equal to the pressure of the air in the glass tube.
- You can measure the volume of trapped air.
- Record the volume for several different pressure values.

### Analysis of manometer method

![Analysis of manometer method](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-10/4c466593-0c8e-4687-893d-7e5384189742/v-p-graph.png)

- If you plot a graph of volume against pressure, you get a monotonically decreasing curve. 
- Plot a graph of V-1 against P and the best fit straight line goes through the origin.
- This verifies that V-1 is directly proportional to the pressure, i.e. pV is a constant or that P and V are inversely proportional to each other. This assumes that the temperature and mass of the gas is constant.

### Further analysis of manometer method

![Further analysis of manometer method](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-10/402c4b77-fc44-4baa-9c20-bb5f1348cb11/v-p-logs-graph.png)

- You can use a logarithmic plot. 
 - Plot log(V) against log (P). It doesn’t matter what base logarithm you use.
 - The gradient of the line of best fit should be -1.
- Assume V = k/P where k is a constant.
 - log(V) = log(k) - log(P).
 - log(V) = - log(P) + log(k).

### Further analysis of manometer method 2

![Further analysis of manometer method 2](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-10/93d9abba-71b2-49aa-a952-a86980f74de0/v-p-logs-graph.png)

- Compare the last line with y = mx + c.
- If log(V) is plotted on the y-axis, with log(P) on the x-axis, the gradient = -1 and the y-intercept should be log(k).
- You can find the constant, k, using k = Zc, where Z is the base of the logarithms (i.e. 10 or e) and c is the y-intercept.

## Investigation of Boyle's Law 2

Boyle’s Law describes the relationship between the pressure and volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature.

### Syringe and data logging method

![Syringe and data logging method](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-10/89bc8a50-909f-4e34-a4b8-0438359714b1/boyles-syringe-method.png)

- Connect the open end of a syringe to a pressure sensor (which is then connected to data logger and computer).
- Start recording on data logger.
- Move the plunger in steps, i.e. decrease or increase the volume of trapped gas slowly so as not to warm or cool the gas.
- For each new volume, record the pressure.

### Syringe and data logging method 2

![Syringe and data logging method 2](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-10/4c466593-0c8e-4687-893d-7e5384189742/v-p-graph.png)

- Use software, such as a spreadsheet, to plot a graph of volume against pressure to get a monotonically decreasing curve. 
- Use software to plot a graph of V-1 against P.
- The best fit straight line should go through the origin, verifying that V-1 is directly proportional to P.
 - i.e. PV = constant or that P and V are inversely proportional to each other, assuming that the temperature and mass of the gas is constant.

## Investigation of Charles’ Law

Charles’ Law describes the relationship between the volume and absolute temperature of a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure.

### Apparatus

![Apparatus](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-10/28c10854-2c25-4bea-9070-96f848f46b10/charles-law-experiment.png)

- Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
- Caution: it is common practice to use a kerosene-based oil, which needed a separate risk assessment because it is available via CLEAPPS.

### Method

![Method](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-10/e7c71751-0db4-4577-b401-34392fd0c1b3/charles-law-experiment.png)

- Keep stirring the water so as to reduce temperature gradients through the water.
- The length of the air column is directly proportional to the volume of trapped air. This assumes that the inner diameter of the capillary tube is constant.

### Analysis

![Analysis](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-10/c44de072-8400-47a0-985b-b4d9bc5baab8/v-T-graph.png)

- Plot a graph of the length of air column against temperature on a graph with axes as shown in the diagram.
 - I.e. extended back to -400 °C so that an extrapolation back to the temperature axis can give a value for absolute zero.
- Notice that the values of volume and temperature are all bunched to the right.

### Analysis 2

![Analysis 2](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-10/c44de072-8400-47a0-985b-b4d9bc5baab8/v-T-graph.png)

- The extrapolation is suspect because you have to extrapolate a long way before the line hits the temperature axis.
- Repeating this with different gases, different volumes of gas and at different pressures gives different straight lines. All of the best fit straight lines should pass through the same point on the temperature axis.

### Plot the graph again

![Plot the graph again](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-10/c44de072-8400-47a0-985b-b4d9bc5baab8/v-T-graph.png)

- If you plot the graph again using the student’s value for absolute zero, the length-temperature graph becomes a straight line through the origin as shown.
- This shows that the volume of gas is directly proportional to the temperature in Kelvin. This assumes that the pressure and mass of the gas are constant.

## Test yourself on Boyle's Law & Charles' Law

- How are the pressure and volume of a gas related?
- Investigation of Boyle's Law
- What should the gradient of a log(V) against log (P) graph be?
- Why is it advisable to use a data logger?
- Which of these statements are true about investigating Boyle's law?

[Practise this topic for free](https://app.senecalearning.com/classroom/course/890da800-6a58-11e8-973c-cb81832c8407/section/d822165c-530e-4189-b6b5-069cbef8fef3/session)

- Previous topic: [6.2.4 Ideal Gases 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-2-4-ideal-gases-2.md)
- Next topic: [6.2.6 Molecular Kinetic Theory Model](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-2-6-molecular-kinetic-theory-model.md)

## Physics: AQA A Level contents

### 1 Measurements & Errors
- 1.1 Measurements & Errors
  - [1.1.1 SI Base Units](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/1-1-1-si-base-units.md)
  - [1.1.2 Combining SI Units](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/1-1-2-combining-si-units.md)
  - [1.1.3 Prefixes of Units](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/1-1-3-prefixes-of-units.md)
  - [1.1.4 Standard Form](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/1-1-4-standard-form.md)
  - [1.1.5 Converting Units](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/1-1-5-converting-units.md)
  - [1.1.6 End of Topic Test - Units & Prefixes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/1-1-6-end-of-topic-test-units-and-prefixes.md)
  - [1.1.7 Limitation of Physical Measurements](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/1-1-7-limitation-of-physical-measurements.md)
  - [1.1.8 Uncertainty](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/1-1-8-uncertainty.md)
  - [1.1.9 Estimation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/1-1-9-estimation.md)
  - [1.1.10 End of Topic Test - Measurements & Errors](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/1-1-10-end-of-topic-test-measurements-and-errors.md)
  - [1.1.11 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Converting between SI](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/1-1-11-diagnostic-misconceptions-converting-between-si.md)
  - [1.1.12 Diagnostic Misconceptions - SI & Area/Volume](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/1-1-12-diagnostic-misconceptions-si-and-areavolume.md)

### 2 Particles & Radiation
- 2.1 Particles
  - [2.1.1 Atomic Model](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-1-atomic-model.md)
  - [2.1.2 Specific Charge, Protons & Neutron Numbers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-2-specific-charge-protons-and-neutron-numbers.md)
  - [2.1.3 End of Topic Test - Atomic Model](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-3-end-of-topic-test-atomic-model.md)
  - [2.1.4 Isotopes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-4-isotopes.md)
  - [2.1.5 Stable & Unstable Nuclei](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-5-stable-and-unstable-nuclei.md)
  - [2.1.6 End of Topic Test - Isotopes & Nuclei](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-6-end-of-topic-test-isotopes-and-nuclei.md)
  - [2.1.7 A-A* (AO3/4) - Stable & Unstable Nuclei](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-7-a-a-ao34-stable-and-unstable-nuclei.md)
  - [2.1.8 Particles, Antiparticles & Photons](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-8-particles-antiparticles-and-photons.md)
  - [2.1.9 Particle Interactions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-9-particle-interactions.md)
  - [2.1.10 Classification of Particles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-10-classification-of-particles.md)
  - [2.1.11 End of Topic Test - Particles & Interactions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-11-end-of-topic-test-particles-and-interactions.md)
  - [2.1.12 Quarks & Antiquarks](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-12-quarks-and-antiquarks.md)
  - [2.1.13 Application of Conservation Laws](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-13-application-of-conservation-laws.md)
  - [2.1.14 End of Topic Test - Leptons & Quarks](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-14-end-of-topic-test-leptons-and-quarks.md)
  - [2.1.15 Exam-Style Question -  Radioactive Decay](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-15-exam-style-question-radioactive-decay.md)
- 2.2 Electromagnetic Radiation & Quantum Phenomena
  - [2.2.1 The Photoelectric Effect](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-2-1-the-photoelectric-effect.md)
  - [2.2.2 The Photoelectric Effect Explanation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-2-2-the-photoelectric-effect-explanation.md)
  - [2.2.3 End of Topic Test - The Photoelectric Effect](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-2-3-end-of-topic-test-the-photoelectric-effect.md)
  - [2.2.4 Collisions of Electrons with Atoms](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-2-4-collisions-of-electrons-with-atoms.md)
  - [2.2.5 Energy Levels & Photon Emission](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-2-5-energy-levels-and-photon-emission.md)
  - [2.2.6 Wave-Particle Duality](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-2-6-wave-particle-duality.md)
  - [2.2.7 End of Topic Test - Absorption & Emission](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-2-7-end-of-topic-test-absorption-and-emission.md)
  - [2.2.8 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Electron Volts](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-2-8-diagnostic-misconceptions-electron-volts.md)
  - [2.2.9 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Converting eV & Joules](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-2-9-diagnostic-misconceptions-converting-ev-and-joules.md)

### 3 Waves
- 3.1 Progressive & Stationary Waves
  - [3.1.1 Progressive Waves](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-1-1-progressive-waves.md)
  - [3.1.2 Wave Speed & Phase Difference](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-1-2-wave-speed-and-phase-difference.md)
  - [3.1.3 Longitudinal & Transverse Waves](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-1-3-longitudinal-and-transverse-waves.md)
  - [3.1.4 End of Topic Test - Progressive Waves](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-1-4-end-of-topic-test-progressive-waves.md)
  - [3.1.5 Polarisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-1-5-polarisation.md)
  - [3.1.6 Stationary Waves](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-1-6-stationary-waves.md)
  - [3.1.7 Stationary Waves 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-1-7-stationary-waves-2.md)
  - [3.1.8 End of Topic Test - Polarisation & Stationary Wave](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-1-8-end-of-topic-test-polarisation-and-stationary-wave.md)
  - [3.1.9 A-A* (AO3/4) - Stationary Waves](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-1-9-a-a-ao34-stationary-waves.md)
- 3.2 Refraction, Diffraction & Interference
  - [3.2.1 Interference](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-2-1-interference.md)
  - [3.2.2 Interference 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-2-2-interference-2.md)
  - [3.2.3 End of Topic Test - Interference](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-2-3-end-of-topic-test-interference.md)
  - [3.2.4 Diffraction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-2-4-diffraction.md)
  - [3.2.5 Diffraction Gratings](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-2-5-diffraction-gratings.md)
  - [3.2.6 End of Topic Test - Diffraction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-2-6-end-of-topic-test-diffraction.md)
  - [3.2.7 Refraction at a Plane Surface](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-2-7-refraction-at-a-plane-surface.md)
  - [3.2.8 Internal Reflection & Fibre Optics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-2-8-internal-reflection-and-fibre-optics.md)
  - [3.2.9 End of Topic Test - Refraction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-2-9-end-of-topic-test-refraction.md)
  - [3.2.10 Exam-Style Question - Waves](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-2-10-exam-style-question-waves.md)

### 4 Mechanics & Materials
- 4.1 Force, Energy & Momentum
  - [4.1.1 Scalars & Vectors](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-1-scalars-and-vectors.md)
  - [4.1.2 Vector Problems](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-2-vector-problems.md)
  - [4.1.3 End of Topic Test - Scalars & Vectors](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-3-end-of-topic-test-scalars-and-vectors.md)
  - [4.1.4 Moments](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-4-moments.md)
  - [4.1.5 Centre of Mass](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-5-centre-of-mass.md)
  - [4.1.6 End of Topic Test - Moments & Centre of Mass](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-6-end-of-topic-test-moments-and-centre-of-mass.md)
  - [4.1.7 Motion in a Straight Line](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-7-motion-in-a-straight-line.md)
  - [4.1.8 Graphs of Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-8-graphs-of-motion.md)
  - [4.1.9 Bouncing Ball Example](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-9-bouncing-ball-example.md)
  - [4.1.10 End of Topic Test - Motion in a Straight Line](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-10-end-of-topic-test-motion-in-a-straight-line.md)
  - [4.1.11 Acceleration Due to Gravity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-11-acceleration-due-to-gravity.md)
  - [4.1.12 Projectile Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-12-projectile-motion.md)
  - [4.1.13 Friction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-13-friction.md)
  - [4.1.14 Terminal Speed](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-14-terminal-speed.md)
  - [4.1.15 End of Topic Test - Acceleration Due to Gravity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-15-end-of-topic-test-acceleration-due-to-gravity.md)
  - [4.1.16 Newton's Laws](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-16-newtons-laws.md)
  - [4.1.17 Momentum](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-17-momentum.md)
  - [4.1.18 Momentum 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-18-momentum-2.md)
  - [4.1.19 End of Topic Test - Newton's Laws & Momentum](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-19-end-of-topic-test-newtons-laws-and-momentum.md)
  - [4.1.20 A-A* (AO3/4) - Newton's Third Law](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-20-a-a-ao34-newtons-third-law.md)
  - [4.1.21 Work & Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-21-work-and-energy.md)
  - [4.1.22 Power & Efficiency](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-22-power-and-efficiency.md)
  - [4.1.23 Conservation of Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-23-conservation-of-energy.md)
  - [4.1.24 End of Topic Test - Work, Energy & Power](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-24-end-of-topic-test-work-energy-and-power.md)
  - [4.1.25 Exam-Style Question - Forces](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-25-exam-style-question-forces.md)
  - [4.1.26 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Perpendicular Vectors](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-26-diagnostic-misconceptions-perpendicular-vectors.md)
  - [4.1.27 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Weight Acts Downwards](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-27-diagnostic-misconceptions-weight-acts-downwards.md)
  - [4.1.28 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Acceleration Direction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-28-diagnostic-misconceptions-acceleration-direction.md)
  - [4.1.29 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Stationary Objects](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-29-diagnostic-misconceptions-stationary-objects.md)
  - [4.1.30 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Action & Reaction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-30-diagnostic-misconceptions-action-and-reaction.md)
  - [4.1.31 Diagnostic Misconceptions - RF Direction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-31-diagnostic-misconceptions-rf-direction.md)
  - [4.1.32 Diagnostic Misconceptions - RF Acceleration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-32-diagnostic-misconceptions-rf-acceleration.md)
  - [4.1.33 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Change in Momentum](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-33-diagnostic-misconceptions-change-in-momentum.md)
- 4.2 Materials
  - [4.2.1 Density](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-2-1-density.md)
  - [4.2.2 Bulk Properties of Solids](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-2-2-bulk-properties-of-solids.md)
  - [4.2.3 Energy in Materials](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-2-3-energy-in-materials.md)
  - [4.2.4 Young Modulus](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-2-4-young-modulus.md)
  - [4.2.5 End of Topic Test - Materials](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-2-5-end-of-topic-test-materials.md)

### 5 Electricity
- 5.1 Current Electricity
  - [5.1.1 Basics of Electricity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-1-basics-of-electricity.md)
  - [5.1.2 Current-Voltage Characteristics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-2-current-voltage-characteristics.md)
  - [5.1.3 End of Topic Test - Basics of Electricity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-3-end-of-topic-test-basics-of-electricity.md)
  - [5.1.4 Resistivity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-4-resistivity.md)
  - [5.1.5 Superconductivity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-5-superconductivity.md)
  - [5.1.6 A-A* (AO3/4) - Superconductivity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-6-a-a-ao34-superconductivity.md)
  - [5.1.7 End of Topic Test - Resistivity & Superconductors](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-7-end-of-topic-test-resistivity-and-superconductors.md)
  - [5.1.8 Circuits](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-8-circuits.md)
  - [5.1.9 Power and Conservation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-9-power-and-conservation.md)
  - [5.1.10 Potential Divider](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-10-potential-divider.md)
  - [5.1.11 Emf & Internal Resistance](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-11-emf-and-internal-resistance.md)
  - [5.1.12 End of Topic Test - Power & Potential](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-12-end-of-topic-test-power-and-potential.md)
  - [5.1.13 Exam-Style Question - Resistance](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-13-exam-style-question-resistance.md)
  - [5.1.14 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Constant Current](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-14-diagnostic-misconceptions-constant-current.md)
  - [5.1.15 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Potential Difference](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-15-diagnostic-misconceptions-potential-difference.md)

### 6 Further Mechanics & Thermal Physics (A2 only)
- 6.1 Periodic Motion (A2 only)
  - [6.1.1 Circular Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-1-1-circular-motion.md)
  - [6.1.2 Circular Motion 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-1-2-circular-motion-2.md)
  - [6.1.3 End of Topic Test - Circular Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-1-3-end-of-topic-test-circular-motion.md)
  - [6.1.4 Simple Harmonic Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-1-4-simple-harmonic-motion.md)
  - [6.1.5 Simple Harmonic Systems](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-1-5-simple-harmonic-systems.md)
  - [6.1.6 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-1-6-energy-in-simple-harmonic-motion.md)
  - [6.1.7 Resonance](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-1-7-resonance.md)
  - [6.1.8 End of Topic Test - Simple Harmonic Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-1-8-end-of-topic-test-simple-harmonic-motion.md)
  - [6.1.9 A-A* (AO3/4) - Simple Harmonic Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-1-9-a-a-ao34-simple-harmonic-motion.md)
- 6.2 Thermal Physics (A2 only)
  - [6.2.1 Thermal Energy Transfer](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-2-1-thermal-energy-transfer.md)
  - [6.2.2 Thermal Energy Transfer Experiments](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-2-2-thermal-energy-transfer-experiments.md)
  - [6.2.3 Ideal Gases](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-2-3-ideal-gases.md)
  - [6.2.4 Ideal Gases 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-2-4-ideal-gases-2.md)
  - [6.2.5 Boyle's Law & Charles' Law](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-2-5-boyles-law-and-charles-law.md)
  - [6.2.6 Molecular Kinetic Theory Model](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-2-6-molecular-kinetic-theory-model.md)
  - [6.2.7 Molecular Kinetic Theory Model 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-2-7-molecular-kinetic-theory-model-2.md)
  - [6.2.8 End of Topic Test - Thermal Energy & Ideal Gases](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-2-8-end-of-topic-test-thermal-energy-and-ideal-gases.md)
  - [6.2.9 Exam-Style Question - Ideal Gases](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-2-9-exam-style-question-ideal-gases.md)
  - [6.2.10 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Material & Mass](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-2-10-diagnostic-misconceptions-material-and-mass.md)
  - [6.2.11 Diagnostic Misconceptions - No Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-2-11-diagnostic-misconceptions-no-energy.md)

### 7 Fields & Their Consequences (A2 only)
- 7.1 Fields (A2 only)
  - [7.1.1 Fields](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-1-1-fields.md)
- 7.2 Gravitational Fields (A2 only)
  - [7.2.1 Newton's Law](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-2-1-newtons-law.md)
  - [7.2.2 Gravitational Field Strength](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-2-2-gravitational-field-strength.md)
  - [7.2.3 Gravitational Potential](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-2-3-gravitational-potential.md)
  - [7.2.4 Orbits of Planets & Satellites](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-2-4-orbits-of-planets-and-satellites.md)
  - [7.2.5 Escape Velocity & Synchronous Orbits](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-2-5-escape-velocity-and-synchronous-orbits.md)
  - [7.2.6 End of Topic Test - Gravitational Fields](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-2-6-end-of-topic-test-gravitational-fields.md)
- 7.3 Electric Fields (A2 only)
  - [7.3.1 Coulomb's Law](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-3-1-coulombs-law.md)
  - [7.3.2 Electric Field Strength](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-3-2-electric-field-strength.md)
  - [7.3.3 Electric Field Strength 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-3-3-electric-field-strength-2.md)
  - [7.3.4 Electric Potential](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-3-4-electric-potential.md)
  - [7.3.5 End of Topic Test - Electric Fields](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-3-5-end-of-topic-test-electric-fields.md)
  - [7.3.6 A-A* (AO3/4) - Electric and Gravitational Field](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-3-6-a-a-ao34-electric-and-gravitational-field.md)
- 7.4 Capacitance (A2 only)
  - [7.4.1 Capacitance](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-4-1-capacitance.md)
  - [7.4.2 Parallel Plate Capacitor](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-4-2-parallel-plate-capacitor.md)
  - [7.4.3 Energy Stored by a Capacitor](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-4-3-energy-stored-by-a-capacitor.md)
  - [7.4.4 Capacitor Discharge](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-4-4-capacitor-discharge.md)
  - [7.4.5 Capacitor Charge](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-4-5-capacitor-charge.md)
- 7.5 Magnetic Fields (A2 only)
  - [7.5.1 Magnetic Flux Density](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-5-1-magnetic-flux-density.md)
  - [7.5.2 End of Topic Test - Capacitance & Flux Density](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-5-2-end-of-topic-test-capacitance-and-flux-density.md)
  - [7.5.3 Moving Charges in a Magnetic Field](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-5-3-moving-charges-in-a-magnetic-field.md)
  - [7.5.4 Magnetic Flux & Flux Linkage](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-5-4-magnetic-flux-and-flux-linkage.md)
  - [7.5.5 Electromagnetic Induction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-5-5-electromagnetic-induction.md)
  - [7.5.6 Electromagnetic Induction 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-5-6-electromagnetic-induction-2.md)
  - [7.5.7 Alternating Currents](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-5-7-alternating-currents.md)
  - [7.5.8 Operation of a Transformer](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-5-8-operation-of-a-transformer.md)
  - [7.5.9 Magnetic Flux Density](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-5-9-magnetic-flux-density.md)
  - [7.5.10 End of Topic Test - Electromagnetic Induction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-5-10-end-of-topic-test-electromagnetic-induction.md)

### 8 Nuclear Physics (A2 only)
- 8.1 Radioactivity (A2 only)
  - [8.1.1 Rutherford Scattering](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-1-rutherford-scattering.md)
  - [8.1.2 Alpha & Beta Radiation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-2-alpha-and-beta-radiation.md)
  - [8.1.3 Gamma Radiation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-3-gamma-radiation.md)
  - [8.1.4 Radioactive Decay](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-4-radioactive-decay.md)
  - [8.1.5 Half Life](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-5-half-life.md)
  - [8.1.6 End of Topic Test - Radioactivity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-6-end-of-topic-test-radioactivity.md)
  - [8.1.7 Nuclear Instability](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-7-nuclear-instability.md)
  - [8.1.8 Nuclear Radius](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-8-nuclear-radius.md)
  - [8.1.9 Mass & Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-9-mass-and-energy.md)
  - [8.1.10 Binding Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-10-binding-energy.md)
  - [8.1.11 Induced Fission](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-11-induced-fission.md)
  - [8.1.12 Safety Aspects of Nuclear Reactors](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-12-safety-aspects-of-nuclear-reactors.md)
  - [8.1.13 End of Topic Test - Nuclear Physics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-13-end-of-topic-test-nuclear-physics.md)
  - [8.1.14 A-A* (AO3/4) - Nuclear Fusion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-14-a-a-ao34-nuclear-fusion.md)

### 9 Option: Astrophysics (A2 only)
- 9.1 Telescopes (A2 only)
  - [9.1.1 Astronomical Telescopes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-1-1-astronomical-telescopes.md)
  - [9.1.2 Reflecting Telescopes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-1-2-reflecting-telescopes.md)
  - [9.1.3 Single Dish Radio Telescopes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-1-3-single-dish-radio-telescopes.md)
  - [9.1.4 Large Diameter Telescopes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-1-4-large-diameter-telescopes.md)
- 9.2 Classification of Stars (A2 only)
  - [9.2.1 Classification by Luminosity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-2-1-classification-by-luminosity.md)
  - [9.2.2 Absolute Magnitude](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-2-2-absolute-magnitude.md)
  - [9.2.3 Black Body Radiation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-2-3-black-body-radiation.md)
  - [9.2.4 Stellar Spectral Classes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-2-4-stellar-spectral-classes.md)
  - [9.2.5 Hertzsprung-Russell Diagrams](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-2-5-hertzsprung-russell-diagrams.md)
  - [9.2.6 Astronomical Objects](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-2-6-astronomical-objects.md)
- 9.3 Cosmology (A2 only)
  - [9.3.1 Doppler Effect](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-3-1-doppler-effect.md)
  - [9.3.2 Hubble's Law](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-3-2-hubbles-law.md)
  - [9.3.3 Quasars](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-3-3-quasars.md)
  - [9.3.4 Detecting Exoplanets](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-3-4-detecting-exoplanets.md)

### 10 Option: Medical Physics (A2 only)
- 10.1 Physics of the Eye (A2 only)
  - [10.1.1 Physics of Vision](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-1-1-physics-of-vision.md)
  - [10.1.2 Defects of Vision](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-1-2-defects-of-vision.md)
  - [10.1.3 Lenses](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-1-3-lenses.md)
  - [10.1.4 Correcting Defects of Vision](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-1-4-correcting-defects-of-vision.md)
- 10.2 Physics of the Ear (A2 only)
  - [10.2.1 Structure of the Ear](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-2-1-structure-of-the-ear.md)
  - [10.2.2 Sensitivity of the Ear](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-2-2-sensitivity-of-the-ear.md)
  - [10.2.3 Hearing Defects](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-2-3-hearing-defects.md)
- 10.3 Biological Measurement (A2 only)
  - [10.3.1 Electrocardiography (ECG)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-3-1-electrocardiography-ecg.md)
- 10.4 Non-Ionising Imaging (A2 only)
  - [10.4.1 Ultrasound Imaging](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-4-1-ultrasound-imaging.md)
  - [10.4.2 Ultrasound Imaging 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-4-2-ultrasound-imaging-2.md)
  - [10.4.3 Fibre Optics & Endoscopy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-4-3-fibre-optics-and-endoscopy.md)
  - [10.4.4 Magnetic Resonance Scanning](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-4-4-magnetic-resonance-scanning.md)
- 10.5 X-Ray Imaging (A2 only)
  - [10.5.1 Diagnostic X-Rays](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-5-1-diagnostic-x-rays.md)
  - [10.5.2 X-Ray Image Processing](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-5-2-x-ray-image-processing.md)
  - [10.5.3 Absorption of X-Rays](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-5-3-absorption-of-x-rays.md)
  - [10.5.4 CT Scanners](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-5-4-ct-scanners.md)
- 10.6 Radionuclide Imaging & Therapy (A2 only)
  - [10.6.1 Imaging Techniques](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-6-1-imaging-techniques.md)
  - [10.6.2 Half Life](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-6-2-half-life.md)
  - [10.6.3 Gamma Camera](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-6-3-gamma-camera.md)
  - [10.6.4 High Energy X-Rays](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-6-4-high-energy-x-rays.md)
  - [10.6.5 Radioactive Implants](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-6-5-radioactive-implants.md)
  - [10.6.6 Imaging Comparisons](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-6-6-imaging-comparisons.md)

### 11 Option: Engineering Physics (A2 only)
- 11.1 Rotational Dynamics (A2 only)
  - [11.1.1 Moment of Inertia](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/11-1-1-moment-of-inertia.md)
  - [11.1.2 Rotational Kinetic Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/11-1-2-rotational-kinetic-energy.md)
  - [11.1.3 Rotational Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/11-1-3-rotational-motion.md)
  - [11.1.4 Torque & Angular Acceleration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/11-1-4-torque-and-angular-acceleration.md)
  - [11.1.5 Angular Momentum](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/11-1-5-angular-momentum.md)
  - [11.1.6 Angular Work & Power](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/11-1-6-angular-work-and-power.md)
- 11.2 Thermodynamics & Engines (A2 only)
  - [11.2.1 First Law of Thermodynamics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/11-2-1-first-law-of-thermodynamics.md)
  - [11.2.2 Non-Flow Processes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/11-2-2-non-flow-processes.md)
  - [11.2.3 p-V Diagrams](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/11-2-3-p-v-diagrams.md)
  - [11.2.4 Engine Cycles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/11-2-4-engine-cycles.md)
  - [11.2.5 Second Law & Engines](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/11-2-5-second-law-and-engines.md)
  - [11.2.6 Reversed Heat Engines](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/11-2-6-reversed-heat-engines.md)

### 12 Option: Turning Points in Physics (A2 only)
- 12.1 Discovery of the Electron (A2 only)
  - [12.1.1 Cathode Rays](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-1-1-cathode-rays.md)
  - [12.1.2 Thermionic Electron Emission](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-1-2-thermionic-electron-emission.md)
  - [12.1.3 Electron Specific Charge](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-1-3-electron-specific-charge.md)
  - [12.1.4 Millikan's Experiment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-1-4-millikans-experiment.md)
- 12.2 Wave-Particle Duality (A2 only)
  - [12.2.1 Newton's & Huygen's Theories of Light](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-2-1-newtons-and-huygens-theories-of-light.md)
  - [12.2.2 Electromagnetic Waves](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-2-2-electromagnetic-waves.md)
  - [12.2.3 Photoelectricity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-2-3-photoelectricity.md)
  - [12.2.4 Wave-Particle Duality](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-2-4-wave-particle-duality.md)
  - [12.2.5 Electron Microscopes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-2-5-electron-microscopes.md)
- 12.3 Special Relativity (A2 only)
  - [12.3.1 Michelson-Morley Experiment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-3-1-michelson-morley-experiment.md)
  - [12.3.2 Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-3-2-einsteins-theory-of-special-relativity.md)
  - [12.3.3 Time Dilation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-3-3-time-dilation.md)
  - [12.3.4 Length Contraction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-3-4-length-contraction.md)
  - [12.3.5 Mass & Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-3-5-mass-and-energy.md)