Source: https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-2-6-wave-particle-duality

[Revision notes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes.md) › [A Level](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level.md) › [Physics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics.md) › [AQA](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa.md) › Wave-Particle Duality

# Wave-Particle Duality

Physics: AQA A Level, topic 2.2.6

## Wave-Particle Duality - Light

Interference and diffraction show that light is a wave. The photoelectric effect shows that light must be a particle. Quantum physics means light can be both a wave and a particle at the same time.

### Light as a wave

![Light as a wave](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/physics/AQA%20New%20Modules/2.1.5/sound%20waves.jpg)

- Experiments such as shining light through a diffraction grating show us that light must be a wave.
- Light must diffract through the grating and then interfere constructively and destructively to produce bands of light and dark.
 - Only a wave would be able to do this.
 - A classical particle (e.g. a tennis ball) cannot interfere with another tennis ball to produce one larger one!

### Light as a particle

![Light as a particle](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/7313e471-185d-4164-a04c-025af3749c6e/lamp-light.jpg)

- The photoelectric effect displays that light must be a particle.
- The experiment shows that light particles (photons) have a one-on-one interaction with an electron on the metal surface.

## Particle Duality

In 1924, physicist Louis de Broglie suggested that particles might exhibit wave properties, such as diffraction. At the time, scientists dismissed his theory. But electron diffraction and other experiments showed de Broglie was right.

### De Broglie wavelength

![De Broglie wavelength](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/physics/3.1.2%20Internal%20reflection/light-567758_640-min.jpg)

- De Broglie suggested that any particle with a momentum, mv, must have an associated wavelength, λ, given by:
 - $$\lambda = \frac{h}{mv}$$

### Electron diffraction experiments

![Electron diffraction experiments](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/f732fabc-e043-41bc-a097-cdbeee0213b9/man-thinking-memory.jpg)

- After de Broglie came up with this theory, other scientists set up experiments trying to prove (or disprove) his equation.
- These experiments showed that electrons did diffract like waves through a grating, and had a wavelength equal to what de Broglie had suggested.
 - Given this experimental evidence, scientists changed their minds and accepted de Broglie's theory.

## Effects of Wave-Particle Duality

Diffraction experiments have shown de Broglie's equation to be true. The equation applies to all particles.

### Wavelength dependence

![Wavelength dependence](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/physics/3.1.2%20Internal%20reflection/light-567758_640-min.jpg)

- The wavelength of an object is inversely proportional to its momentum (mass × velocity).
- A proton travelling at the same speed as an electron will have a smaller wavelength.
 - This is because its mass is larger than the electron's.
- A faster moving electron will have a shorter wavelength than a slow moving one.

### Conditions for observing diffraction

![Conditions for observing diffraction](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/chemistry/1.1.1-Mixtures%20and%20compounds/crystallisation.jpg)

- Diffraction patterns are only visible if the wavelength of the particle is roughly equal to the width of the diffraction grating.
- Electrons are tiny. So it is possible to reduce their de Broglie wavelength to the distances between atoms in a crystal (a few hundred nanometres).
 - This means we can observe diffraction effects in electrons.

### Conditions for observing diffraction 2

![Conditions for observing diffraction 2](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-08/ac6fb5b6-ba7d-4b39-a900-bcb25204b540/you-have.jpg)

- You are a particle with a mass of a few tens of kilograms.
- According to the de Broglie equation, if you travel at 1m/s you have a wavelength of around 10-35m.
 - That is 1025 times smaller than the size of an atom.
 - Fortunately for us, there is nothing that small for us to diffract through!

## Test yourself on Wave-Particle Duality

- Which of these statements are true about light?
- Which of the following is true of particle duality?
- Which of these statements about particle wavelengths are true?
- In which of these scenarios would we expect to see diffraction?

[Practise this topic for free](https://app.senecalearning.com/classroom/course/890da800-6a58-11e8-973c-cb81832c8407/section/af234343-fa9c-48b7-9faa-d196dfdb0288/session)

- Previous topic: [2.2.5 Energy Levels & Photon Emission](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-2-5-energy-levels-and-photon-emission.md)
- Next topic: [2.2.7 End of Topic Test - Absorption & Emission](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-2-7-end-of-topic-test-absorption-and-emission.md)

## Physics: AQA A Level contents

### 1 Measurements & Errors
- 1.1 Measurements & Errors
  - [1.1.1 SI Base Units](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/1-1-1-si-base-units.md)
  - [1.1.2 Combining SI Units](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/1-1-2-combining-si-units.md)
  - [1.1.3 Prefixes of Units](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/1-1-3-prefixes-of-units.md)
  - [1.1.4 Standard Form](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/1-1-4-standard-form.md)
  - [1.1.5 Converting Units](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/1-1-5-converting-units.md)
  - [1.1.6 End of Topic Test - Units & Prefixes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/1-1-6-end-of-topic-test-units-and-prefixes.md)
  - [1.1.7 Limitation of Physical Measurements](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/1-1-7-limitation-of-physical-measurements.md)
  - [1.1.8 Uncertainty](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/1-1-8-uncertainty.md)
  - [1.1.9 Estimation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/1-1-9-estimation.md)
  - [1.1.10 End of Topic Test - Measurements & Errors](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/1-1-10-end-of-topic-test-measurements-and-errors.md)
  - [1.1.11 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Converting between SI](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/1-1-11-diagnostic-misconceptions-converting-between-si.md)
  - [1.1.12 Diagnostic Misconceptions - SI & Area/Volume](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/1-1-12-diagnostic-misconceptions-si-and-areavolume.md)

### 2 Particles & Radiation
- 2.1 Particles
  - [2.1.1 Atomic Model](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-1-atomic-model.md)
  - [2.1.2 Specific Charge, Protons & Neutron Numbers](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-2-specific-charge-protons-and-neutron-numbers.md)
  - [2.1.3 End of Topic Test - Atomic Model](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-3-end-of-topic-test-atomic-model.md)
  - [2.1.4 Isotopes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-4-isotopes.md)
  - [2.1.5 Stable & Unstable Nuclei](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-5-stable-and-unstable-nuclei.md)
  - [2.1.6 End of Topic Test - Isotopes & Nuclei](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-6-end-of-topic-test-isotopes-and-nuclei.md)
  - [2.1.7 A-A* (AO3/4) - Stable & Unstable Nuclei](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-7-a-a-ao34-stable-and-unstable-nuclei.md)
  - [2.1.8 Particles, Antiparticles & Photons](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-8-particles-antiparticles-and-photons.md)
  - [2.1.9 Particle Interactions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-9-particle-interactions.md)
  - [2.1.10 Classification of Particles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-10-classification-of-particles.md)
  - [2.1.11 End of Topic Test - Particles & Interactions](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-11-end-of-topic-test-particles-and-interactions.md)
  - [2.1.12 Quarks & Antiquarks](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-12-quarks-and-antiquarks.md)
  - [2.1.13 Application of Conservation Laws](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-13-application-of-conservation-laws.md)
  - [2.1.14 End of Topic Test - Leptons & Quarks](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-14-end-of-topic-test-leptons-and-quarks.md)
  - [2.1.15 Exam-Style Question -  Radioactive Decay](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-1-15-exam-style-question-radioactive-decay.md)
- 2.2 Electromagnetic Radiation & Quantum Phenomena
  - [2.2.1 The Photoelectric Effect](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-2-1-the-photoelectric-effect.md)
  - [2.2.2 The Photoelectric Effect Explanation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-2-2-the-photoelectric-effect-explanation.md)
  - [2.2.3 End of Topic Test - The Photoelectric Effect](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-2-3-end-of-topic-test-the-photoelectric-effect.md)
  - [2.2.4 Collisions of Electrons with Atoms](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-2-4-collisions-of-electrons-with-atoms.md)
  - [2.2.5 Energy Levels & Photon Emission](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-2-5-energy-levels-and-photon-emission.md)
  - [2.2.6 Wave-Particle Duality](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-2-6-wave-particle-duality.md)
  - [2.2.7 End of Topic Test - Absorption & Emission](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-2-7-end-of-topic-test-absorption-and-emission.md)
  - [2.2.8 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Electron Volts](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-2-8-diagnostic-misconceptions-electron-volts.md)
  - [2.2.9 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Converting eV & Joules](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/2-2-9-diagnostic-misconceptions-converting-ev-and-joules.md)

### 3 Waves
- 3.1 Progressive & Stationary Waves
  - [3.1.1 Progressive Waves](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-1-1-progressive-waves.md)
  - [3.1.2 Wave Speed & Phase Difference](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-1-2-wave-speed-and-phase-difference.md)
  - [3.1.3 Longitudinal & Transverse Waves](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-1-3-longitudinal-and-transverse-waves.md)
  - [3.1.4 End of Topic Test - Progressive Waves](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-1-4-end-of-topic-test-progressive-waves.md)
  - [3.1.5 Polarisation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-1-5-polarisation.md)
  - [3.1.6 Stationary Waves](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-1-6-stationary-waves.md)
  - [3.1.7 Stationary Waves 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-1-7-stationary-waves-2.md)
  - [3.1.8 End of Topic Test - Polarisation & Stationary Wave](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-1-8-end-of-topic-test-polarisation-and-stationary-wave.md)
  - [3.1.9 A-A* (AO3/4) - Stationary Waves](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-1-9-a-a-ao34-stationary-waves.md)
- 3.2 Refraction, Diffraction & Interference
  - [3.2.1 Interference](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-2-1-interference.md)
  - [3.2.2 Interference 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-2-2-interference-2.md)
  - [3.2.3 End of Topic Test - Interference](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-2-3-end-of-topic-test-interference.md)
  - [3.2.4 Diffraction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-2-4-diffraction.md)
  - [3.2.5 Diffraction Gratings](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-2-5-diffraction-gratings.md)
  - [3.2.6 End of Topic Test - Diffraction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-2-6-end-of-topic-test-diffraction.md)
  - [3.2.7 Refraction at a Plane Surface](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-2-7-refraction-at-a-plane-surface.md)
  - [3.2.8 Internal Reflection & Fibre Optics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-2-8-internal-reflection-and-fibre-optics.md)
  - [3.2.9 End of Topic Test - Refraction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-2-9-end-of-topic-test-refraction.md)
  - [3.2.10 Exam-Style Question - Waves](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/3-2-10-exam-style-question-waves.md)

### 4 Mechanics & Materials
- 4.1 Force, Energy & Momentum
  - [4.1.1 Scalars & Vectors](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-1-scalars-and-vectors.md)
  - [4.1.2 Vector Problems](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-2-vector-problems.md)
  - [4.1.3 End of Topic Test - Scalars & Vectors](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-3-end-of-topic-test-scalars-and-vectors.md)
  - [4.1.4 Moments](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-4-moments.md)
  - [4.1.5 Centre of Mass](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-5-centre-of-mass.md)
  - [4.1.6 End of Topic Test - Moments & Centre of Mass](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-6-end-of-topic-test-moments-and-centre-of-mass.md)
  - [4.1.7 Motion in a Straight Line](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-7-motion-in-a-straight-line.md)
  - [4.1.8 Graphs of Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-8-graphs-of-motion.md)
  - [4.1.9 Bouncing Ball Example](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-9-bouncing-ball-example.md)
  - [4.1.10 End of Topic Test - Motion in a Straight Line](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-10-end-of-topic-test-motion-in-a-straight-line.md)
  - [4.1.11 Acceleration Due to Gravity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-11-acceleration-due-to-gravity.md)
  - [4.1.12 Projectile Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-12-projectile-motion.md)
  - [4.1.13 Friction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-13-friction.md)
  - [4.1.14 Terminal Speed](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-14-terminal-speed.md)
  - [4.1.15 End of Topic Test - Acceleration Due to Gravity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-15-end-of-topic-test-acceleration-due-to-gravity.md)
  - [4.1.16 Newton's Laws](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-16-newtons-laws.md)
  - [4.1.17 Momentum](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-17-momentum.md)
  - [4.1.18 Momentum 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-18-momentum-2.md)
  - [4.1.19 End of Topic Test - Newton's Laws & Momentum](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-19-end-of-topic-test-newtons-laws-and-momentum.md)
  - [4.1.20 A-A* (AO3/4) - Newton's Third Law](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-20-a-a-ao34-newtons-third-law.md)
  - [4.1.21 Work & Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-21-work-and-energy.md)
  - [4.1.22 Power & Efficiency](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-22-power-and-efficiency.md)
  - [4.1.23 Conservation of Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-23-conservation-of-energy.md)
  - [4.1.24 End of Topic Test - Work, Energy & Power](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-24-end-of-topic-test-work-energy-and-power.md)
  - [4.1.25 Exam-Style Question - Forces](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-25-exam-style-question-forces.md)
  - [4.1.26 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Perpendicular Vectors](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-26-diagnostic-misconceptions-perpendicular-vectors.md)
  - [4.1.27 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Weight Acts Downwards](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-27-diagnostic-misconceptions-weight-acts-downwards.md)
  - [4.1.28 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Acceleration Direction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-28-diagnostic-misconceptions-acceleration-direction.md)
  - [4.1.29 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Stationary Objects](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-29-diagnostic-misconceptions-stationary-objects.md)
  - [4.1.30 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Action & Reaction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-30-diagnostic-misconceptions-action-and-reaction.md)
  - [4.1.31 Diagnostic Misconceptions - RF Direction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-31-diagnostic-misconceptions-rf-direction.md)
  - [4.1.32 Diagnostic Misconceptions - RF Acceleration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-32-diagnostic-misconceptions-rf-acceleration.md)
  - [4.1.33 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Change in Momentum](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-1-33-diagnostic-misconceptions-change-in-momentum.md)
- 4.2 Materials
  - [4.2.1 Density](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-2-1-density.md)
  - [4.2.2 Bulk Properties of Solids](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-2-2-bulk-properties-of-solids.md)
  - [4.2.3 Energy in Materials](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-2-3-energy-in-materials.md)
  - [4.2.4 Young Modulus](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-2-4-young-modulus.md)
  - [4.2.5 End of Topic Test - Materials](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/4-2-5-end-of-topic-test-materials.md)

### 5 Electricity
- 5.1 Current Electricity
  - [5.1.1 Basics of Electricity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-1-basics-of-electricity.md)
  - [5.1.2 Current-Voltage Characteristics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-2-current-voltage-characteristics.md)
  - [5.1.3 End of Topic Test - Basics of Electricity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-3-end-of-topic-test-basics-of-electricity.md)
  - [5.1.4 Resistivity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-4-resistivity.md)
  - [5.1.5 Superconductivity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-5-superconductivity.md)
  - [5.1.6 A-A* (AO3/4) - Superconductivity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-6-a-a-ao34-superconductivity.md)
  - [5.1.7 End of Topic Test - Resistivity & Superconductors](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-7-end-of-topic-test-resistivity-and-superconductors.md)
  - [5.1.8 Circuits](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-8-circuits.md)
  - [5.1.9 Power and Conservation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-9-power-and-conservation.md)
  - [5.1.10 Potential Divider](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-10-potential-divider.md)
  - [5.1.11 Emf & Internal Resistance](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-11-emf-and-internal-resistance.md)
  - [5.1.12 End of Topic Test - Power & Potential](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-12-end-of-topic-test-power-and-potential.md)
  - [5.1.13 Exam-Style Question - Resistance](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-13-exam-style-question-resistance.md)
  - [5.1.14 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Constant Current](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-14-diagnostic-misconceptions-constant-current.md)
  - [5.1.15 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Potential Difference](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/5-1-15-diagnostic-misconceptions-potential-difference.md)

### 6 Further Mechanics & Thermal Physics (A2 only)
- 6.1 Periodic Motion (A2 only)
  - [6.1.1 Circular Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-1-1-circular-motion.md)
  - [6.1.2 Circular Motion 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-1-2-circular-motion-2.md)
  - [6.1.3 End of Topic Test - Circular Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-1-3-end-of-topic-test-circular-motion.md)
  - [6.1.4 Simple Harmonic Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-1-4-simple-harmonic-motion.md)
  - [6.1.5 Simple Harmonic Systems](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-1-5-simple-harmonic-systems.md)
  - [6.1.6 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-1-6-energy-in-simple-harmonic-motion.md)
  - [6.1.7 Resonance](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-1-7-resonance.md)
  - [6.1.8 End of Topic Test - Simple Harmonic Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-1-8-end-of-topic-test-simple-harmonic-motion.md)
  - [6.1.9 A-A* (AO3/4) - Simple Harmonic Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-1-9-a-a-ao34-simple-harmonic-motion.md)
- 6.2 Thermal Physics (A2 only)
  - [6.2.1 Thermal Energy Transfer](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-2-1-thermal-energy-transfer.md)
  - [6.2.2 Thermal Energy Transfer Experiments](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-2-2-thermal-energy-transfer-experiments.md)
  - [6.2.3 Ideal Gases](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-2-3-ideal-gases.md)
  - [6.2.4 Ideal Gases 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-2-4-ideal-gases-2.md)
  - [6.2.5 Boyle's Law & Charles' Law](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-2-5-boyles-law-and-charles-law.md)
  - [6.2.6 Molecular Kinetic Theory Model](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-2-6-molecular-kinetic-theory-model.md)
  - [6.2.7 Molecular Kinetic Theory Model 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-2-7-molecular-kinetic-theory-model-2.md)
  - [6.2.8 End of Topic Test - Thermal Energy & Ideal Gases](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-2-8-end-of-topic-test-thermal-energy-and-ideal-gases.md)
  - [6.2.9 Exam-Style Question - Ideal Gases](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-2-9-exam-style-question-ideal-gases.md)
  - [6.2.10 Diagnostic Misconceptions - Material & Mass](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-2-10-diagnostic-misconceptions-material-and-mass.md)
  - [6.2.11 Diagnostic Misconceptions - No Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/6-2-11-diagnostic-misconceptions-no-energy.md)

### 7 Fields & Their Consequences (A2 only)
- 7.1 Fields (A2 only)
  - [7.1.1 Fields](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-1-1-fields.md)
- 7.2 Gravitational Fields (A2 only)
  - [7.2.1 Newton's Law](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-2-1-newtons-law.md)
  - [7.2.2 Gravitational Field Strength](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-2-2-gravitational-field-strength.md)
  - [7.2.3 Gravitational Potential](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-2-3-gravitational-potential.md)
  - [7.2.4 Orbits of Planets & Satellites](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-2-4-orbits-of-planets-and-satellites.md)
  - [7.2.5 Escape Velocity & Synchronous Orbits](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-2-5-escape-velocity-and-synchronous-orbits.md)
  - [7.2.6 End of Topic Test - Gravitational Fields](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-2-6-end-of-topic-test-gravitational-fields.md)
- 7.3 Electric Fields (A2 only)
  - [7.3.1 Coulomb's Law](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-3-1-coulombs-law.md)
  - [7.3.2 Electric Field Strength](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-3-2-electric-field-strength.md)
  - [7.3.3 Electric Field Strength 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-3-3-electric-field-strength-2.md)
  - [7.3.4 Electric Potential](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-3-4-electric-potential.md)
  - [7.3.5 End of Topic Test - Electric Fields](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-3-5-end-of-topic-test-electric-fields.md)
  - [7.3.6 A-A* (AO3/4) - Electric and Gravitational Field](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-3-6-a-a-ao34-electric-and-gravitational-field.md)
- 7.4 Capacitance (A2 only)
  - [7.4.1 Capacitance](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-4-1-capacitance.md)
  - [7.4.2 Parallel Plate Capacitor](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-4-2-parallel-plate-capacitor.md)
  - [7.4.3 Energy Stored by a Capacitor](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-4-3-energy-stored-by-a-capacitor.md)
  - [7.4.4 Capacitor Discharge](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-4-4-capacitor-discharge.md)
  - [7.4.5 Capacitor Charge](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-4-5-capacitor-charge.md)
- 7.5 Magnetic Fields (A2 only)
  - [7.5.1 Magnetic Flux Density](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-5-1-magnetic-flux-density.md)
  - [7.5.2 End of Topic Test - Capacitance & Flux Density](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-5-2-end-of-topic-test-capacitance-and-flux-density.md)
  - [7.5.3 Moving Charges in a Magnetic Field](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-5-3-moving-charges-in-a-magnetic-field.md)
  - [7.5.4 Magnetic Flux & Flux Linkage](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-5-4-magnetic-flux-and-flux-linkage.md)
  - [7.5.5 Electromagnetic Induction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-5-5-electromagnetic-induction.md)
  - [7.5.6 Electromagnetic Induction 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-5-6-electromagnetic-induction-2.md)
  - [7.5.7 Alternating Currents](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-5-7-alternating-currents.md)
  - [7.5.8 Operation of a Transformer](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-5-8-operation-of-a-transformer.md)
  - [7.5.9 Magnetic Flux Density](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-5-9-magnetic-flux-density.md)
  - [7.5.10 End of Topic Test - Electromagnetic Induction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/7-5-10-end-of-topic-test-electromagnetic-induction.md)

### 8 Nuclear Physics (A2 only)
- 8.1 Radioactivity (A2 only)
  - [8.1.1 Rutherford Scattering](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-1-rutherford-scattering.md)
  - [8.1.2 Alpha & Beta Radiation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-2-alpha-and-beta-radiation.md)
  - [8.1.3 Gamma Radiation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-3-gamma-radiation.md)
  - [8.1.4 Radioactive Decay](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-4-radioactive-decay.md)
  - [8.1.5 Half Life](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-5-half-life.md)
  - [8.1.6 End of Topic Test - Radioactivity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-6-end-of-topic-test-radioactivity.md)
  - [8.1.7 Nuclear Instability](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-7-nuclear-instability.md)
  - [8.1.8 Nuclear Radius](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-8-nuclear-radius.md)
  - [8.1.9 Mass & Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-9-mass-and-energy.md)
  - [8.1.10 Binding Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-10-binding-energy.md)
  - [8.1.11 Induced Fission](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-11-induced-fission.md)
  - [8.1.12 Safety Aspects of Nuclear Reactors](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-12-safety-aspects-of-nuclear-reactors.md)
  - [8.1.13 End of Topic Test - Nuclear Physics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-13-end-of-topic-test-nuclear-physics.md)
  - [8.1.14 A-A* (AO3/4) - Nuclear Fusion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/8-1-14-a-a-ao34-nuclear-fusion.md)

### 9 Option: Astrophysics (A2 only)
- 9.1 Telescopes (A2 only)
  - [9.1.1 Astronomical Telescopes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-1-1-astronomical-telescopes.md)
  - [9.1.2 Reflecting Telescopes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-1-2-reflecting-telescopes.md)
  - [9.1.3 Single Dish Radio Telescopes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-1-3-single-dish-radio-telescopes.md)
  - [9.1.4 Large Diameter Telescopes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-1-4-large-diameter-telescopes.md)
- 9.2 Classification of Stars (A2 only)
  - [9.2.1 Classification by Luminosity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-2-1-classification-by-luminosity.md)
  - [9.2.2 Absolute Magnitude](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-2-2-absolute-magnitude.md)
  - [9.2.3 Black Body Radiation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-2-3-black-body-radiation.md)
  - [9.2.4 Stellar Spectral Classes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-2-4-stellar-spectral-classes.md)
  - [9.2.5 Hertzsprung-Russell Diagrams](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-2-5-hertzsprung-russell-diagrams.md)
  - [9.2.6 Astronomical Objects](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-2-6-astronomical-objects.md)
- 9.3 Cosmology (A2 only)
  - [9.3.1 Doppler Effect](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-3-1-doppler-effect.md)
  - [9.3.2 Hubble's Law](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-3-2-hubbles-law.md)
  - [9.3.3 Quasars](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-3-3-quasars.md)
  - [9.3.4 Detecting Exoplanets](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/9-3-4-detecting-exoplanets.md)

### 10 Option: Medical Physics (A2 only)
- 10.1 Physics of the Eye (A2 only)
  - [10.1.1 Physics of Vision](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-1-1-physics-of-vision.md)
  - [10.1.2 Defects of Vision](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-1-2-defects-of-vision.md)
  - [10.1.3 Lenses](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-1-3-lenses.md)
  - [10.1.4 Correcting Defects of Vision](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-1-4-correcting-defects-of-vision.md)
- 10.2 Physics of the Ear (A2 only)
  - [10.2.1 Structure of the Ear](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-2-1-structure-of-the-ear.md)
  - [10.2.2 Sensitivity of the Ear](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-2-2-sensitivity-of-the-ear.md)
  - [10.2.3 Hearing Defects](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-2-3-hearing-defects.md)
- 10.3 Biological Measurement (A2 only)
  - [10.3.1 Electrocardiography (ECG)](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-3-1-electrocardiography-ecg.md)
- 10.4 Non-Ionising Imaging (A2 only)
  - [10.4.1 Ultrasound Imaging](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-4-1-ultrasound-imaging.md)
  - [10.4.2 Ultrasound Imaging 2](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-4-2-ultrasound-imaging-2.md)
  - [10.4.3 Fibre Optics & Endoscopy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-4-3-fibre-optics-and-endoscopy.md)
  - [10.4.4 Magnetic Resonance Scanning](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-4-4-magnetic-resonance-scanning.md)
- 10.5 X-Ray Imaging (A2 only)
  - [10.5.1 Diagnostic X-Rays](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-5-1-diagnostic-x-rays.md)
  - [10.5.2 X-Ray Image Processing](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-5-2-x-ray-image-processing.md)
  - [10.5.3 Absorption of X-Rays](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-5-3-absorption-of-x-rays.md)
  - [10.5.4 CT Scanners](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-5-4-ct-scanners.md)
- 10.6 Radionuclide Imaging & Therapy (A2 only)
  - [10.6.1 Imaging Techniques](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-6-1-imaging-techniques.md)
  - [10.6.2 Half Life](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-6-2-half-life.md)
  - [10.6.3 Gamma Camera](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-6-3-gamma-camera.md)
  - [10.6.4 High Energy X-Rays](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-6-4-high-energy-x-rays.md)
  - [10.6.5 Radioactive Implants](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-6-5-radioactive-implants.md)
  - [10.6.6 Imaging Comparisons](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/10-6-6-imaging-comparisons.md)

### 11 Option: Engineering Physics (A2 only)
- 11.1 Rotational Dynamics (A2 only)
  - [11.1.1 Moment of Inertia](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/11-1-1-moment-of-inertia.md)
  - [11.1.2 Rotational Kinetic Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/11-1-2-rotational-kinetic-energy.md)
  - [11.1.3 Rotational Motion](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/11-1-3-rotational-motion.md)
  - [11.1.4 Torque & Angular Acceleration](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/11-1-4-torque-and-angular-acceleration.md)
  - [11.1.5 Angular Momentum](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/11-1-5-angular-momentum.md)
  - [11.1.6 Angular Work & Power](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/11-1-6-angular-work-and-power.md)
- 11.2 Thermodynamics & Engines (A2 only)
  - [11.2.1 First Law of Thermodynamics](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/11-2-1-first-law-of-thermodynamics.md)
  - [11.2.2 Non-Flow Processes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/11-2-2-non-flow-processes.md)
  - [11.2.3 p-V Diagrams](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/11-2-3-p-v-diagrams.md)
  - [11.2.4 Engine Cycles](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/11-2-4-engine-cycles.md)
  - [11.2.5 Second Law & Engines](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/11-2-5-second-law-and-engines.md)
  - [11.2.6 Reversed Heat Engines](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/11-2-6-reversed-heat-engines.md)

### 12 Option: Turning Points in Physics (A2 only)
- 12.1 Discovery of the Electron (A2 only)
  - [12.1.1 Cathode Rays](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-1-1-cathode-rays.md)
  - [12.1.2 Thermionic Electron Emission](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-1-2-thermionic-electron-emission.md)
  - [12.1.3 Electron Specific Charge](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-1-3-electron-specific-charge.md)
  - [12.1.4 Millikan's Experiment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-1-4-millikans-experiment.md)
- 12.2 Wave-Particle Duality (A2 only)
  - [12.2.1 Newton's & Huygen's Theories of Light](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-2-1-newtons-and-huygens-theories-of-light.md)
  - [12.2.2 Electromagnetic Waves](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-2-2-electromagnetic-waves.md)
  - [12.2.3 Photoelectricity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-2-3-photoelectricity.md)
  - [12.2.4 Wave-Particle Duality](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-2-4-wave-particle-duality.md)
  - [12.2.5 Electron Microscopes](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-2-5-electron-microscopes.md)
- 12.3 Special Relativity (A2 only)
  - [12.3.1 Michelson-Morley Experiment](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-3-1-michelson-morley-experiment.md)
  - [12.3.2 Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-3-2-einsteins-theory-of-special-relativity.md)
  - [12.3.3 Time Dilation](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-3-3-time-dilation.md)
  - [12.3.4 Length Contraction](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-3-4-length-contraction.md)
  - [12.3.5 Mass & Energy](https://senecalearning.com/en-gb/revision-notes/a-level/physics/aqa/12-3-5-mass-and-energy.md)